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1Development by Comparison and Contrast2lComparison and contrast are two thinking processes we constantly perform in our daily life.We might compare and contrast two cities,two products,two books,two plays or films,etc.although comparison usually indentifies similarities and contrast points out differences,the two are structurally similar and can be discussed together.The purpose of comparing or contrasting is to understand either of the two things more clearly and,at times,to make judgments about them.3Subject-by-subject Patternl1.stress is caused by daily having to contend with crowds of people and restricted space.l2.Travel in rush hour can be a real headache.l3.Pollution of various kinds is the result of industrialization.l4.Cars spew toxic fumes into the atmosphere.l5.Noise bellows out from every side.l1.Here the pace of life is gentle.l2.There is time to reflect on the beauty of the world.l3.In a village,life is closer to nature.The changing seasons can be clearly observed.l4.Ther is ample space for everyone,and fresh air to breathe.4Subject-by-subject PatternlFor Americans a long time may be anything from forty years to forty minutes,depending on the circumstances.To an American businessman a proposal that could be completed within forty years might be too far into the future to be considered.A motorist who gets involved in a traffic accident would be in great trouble with the police if he waited twenty-four hours to report the accident.An hour would be too long a time to be late for a business appointment or a date.Americans are so time-conscious that promptness is not only a virtue;it is an obligation.5Subject-by-subject PatternlBut many other cultures have no such concept of a long time.During W W II,a local truck driver arrived breathlessly at military government headquarters report that a murderer was running loose in his village.Under question he told them the murder had occurred seventeen years earlier and that the murderer had remained unmolested in the village all the time.In a South American city,an American was asked to present immediately his credentials to a local official and was kept waiting outside his office for almost two hours.For such people,promptness is not only unreasonable but also irritating.They often wonder why Americans make such a fuss about it.To a South Asian person,a long time may be 1,000years,or even forever.6A.Americans concept of“a long time”:_.Examples:(1)_ (2)_ (3)_ Attitudes to promptness:_B.Other cultures concepts of“a long time”:_ Examples:(1)_ (2)_ (3)_7SummarylIn,we discuss the two subjects separately,that is to say,we discuss all of the characteristics of subdivisions of the first subject in the first half and then present all the characteristics of the other in the second half.The aspects examined in the two subjects should be the same and in both parts,we should follow the same logical order for each subject.8lLife in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs.People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life.However,life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual than that in the city.If city dwellers want to see trees and grass,they have to go to one of the public parks.On the other hand,the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and each house has its own grassy yard.A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment,but a suburban dweller must go into the city for entertainment.9SummarylIn,the writer compares and contrasts both subjects item after item.He structures his paragraph around points of comparison instead of subjects,moving back and forth between the subjects.The specifics of both subjects are placed close together for direct and immediate comparison and contrast,and transitions are often used so as to avoid abrupt switching between the two subjects.lThe point-by-point pattern works best with subjects that contain a lot of points.It can bring into sharp focus the similarities and differences for the reader to see as he reads along.10lA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other.The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world;the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.The Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped.The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture.11lThe Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world.They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.The ancient statues of Apollo,for instance,resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.Generally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts.They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.12Linking deviceslA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other.The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world;the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.lA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other.The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.13Linking deviceslThe Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped.The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture.lThe Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped.The Greek interpretation of divinity this dark picture.14Linking deviceslThe Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world.They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.The ancient statues of Apollo,for instance,resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.lThe Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world.,They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.The ancient statues of Apollo,for instance,resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.15Linking deviceslGenerally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts.They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.lGenerally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts.,They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.16SummarylLinking words and phrases can indicate contrast and clarify the shift from one side to the other.They play an important role in ensuring a smooth and coherent flow from one subject to another,or from one point to another in paragraphs.17 Development by Cause and Effect18lAt the end of the unit you will:lBe able to recognize characteristics and organizational patterns of cause and effect in paragraph writing;lBe acquainted with relevant linking devices in cause and effect writing;andlBe able to write effective paragraphs of cause and effect according to the instructions given19l“Cause and effect is regarded as a logical pattern commonly used in explanation and argumentation,especially when we explore possible connections between an action/event and its outcome,or between causes and results of an event,action.20Sample 1lOne of the main complaints of city residents in the US is the lack of parking.This problem is partly caused by all the abandoned cars on the streets.It has been estimated that over one million cars are abandoned on the streets of the cities.Each year,approximately a third of those cars are removed and destroyed.The rest of the cars which are not removed take up parking spaces and make neighbourhood look run-down.A survey shows that21leven though the city government of Los Angeles spends about 30 million dollars to tow away and dismantle abandoned vehicles,it is always fighting a losing battle as more and more cars are constantly coming off the producing line.In Boston,on the other hand,the problem has been dealt with by a non-profit governmental agency,which uses the money from the recycling of the mental in the cars to pay for the cost of towing them.The program in Boston sounds good although it has not completely reached financial independence from the federal government yet.Until a truly self-sufficient program for removing old cars is developed,it will remain a serious problem.22Questionsl1.What is the topic of the paragraph?l2.What are the organizational characteristics of the paragraph?l3.In what kind of order are the causes presented?23lThis paragraph is developed around the problem of“the lack of parking”complained about by US city residents.lThe paragraph is organised on a pattern of single effect and multiple causes.After the problem is clearly presented at the beginning,the rest of the paragraph is devoted to the exploration of its causes.Altogether three major causes are discussed,from the obvious fact of the abandoned cars taking up parking spaces to the underlying financial headaches.In this way,the writing shows a logical cause-and-effect pattern,which might consequently attract more concern or efforts in the problems solution.24lCauseslOver a million cars are abandoned on the streets.lMore cars are constantly being produced.lBoth city governments or governmental agencies have financial headaches.lEffectlLack of parking in cities25SummarylThe sample paragraph presents the problem of lack of parking in some of the US cities before it goes on to explore the causes of the issue.This pattern of organization is single effect vs.multiple causes.In this pattern,you may state the issue,i.e.the effect,right at the beginning,and then guide the reader to track down some important evidence for the causes.The causes can be traced from the most the most superficial to the deepest,26lFrom the most direct to the most indirect,etc.In the end,it is advisable to suggest some solution to the problem,so that the whole writing has some significance.27Sample 2lSince the terrorists struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon,the Americans have been wondering how to respond to the frequent official warning that terrorists are planning new attacks in the near future.They feel anxious and panicky because they cant calculate the odds including those of explosives or letters with anthrax.But it is critical that the presidents aides avoid any temptation to use security precautions as an excuse for political errors,which was already made somewhere.28lThere is,of course,the danger that too many warnings could become mere background noise,and that somewhere down the road the public would wind up ignoring the one that really matters.The public cannot judge on a day-to-day basis whether those assessments are being made correctly.But the nation is better off frightened and informed than left happily in the dark.29QuestionslWhat problem is addressed in this paragraph?And in how many aspects is the cause or effect explored?lDoes this paragraph come straight to the point of cause or effect about the issue?lDoes it follow the same pattern as Sample 1?If not,what are the differences?30l1.The problem addressed refers to the issue of terrorist attacks.This issue has brought about at least three major aspects of consequence or effect.lThe paragraph addresses the cause rather than effects right at the beginning.lNo.it follows a pattern of single cause and multiple effects.Unlike Sample 1 in which effect is addressed first and causes are traced backwards,Sample 2 states briefly at the beginning the issue of terrorist attacks as a direct issue,and then dwells on three major effects,some factual and some predicted.31 32Summary lYou may have noticed the difference in organization between Sample 1 and Sample 2.In Sample 2 the writer briefly presents the issue of terrorist attacks as a direct cause,and then dwells upon three major effects,from the matter-of-fact to something predicted.This is called the single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern.As is observed,the writer structures his paragraph mainly around points of effects instead of causes,33SummarylReasoning along the logical sequence of events.Like Sample 1,transitions are also used so as to avoid abrupt idea development.lThe single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern works best with issue that turn out to be far-reaching or influential.It can bring into sharp focus the relationship between causes and effects of an issue under discussion.3435Development by classificationlIn life,we always find examples of classification and division.Food,drinks,clothes,animals,plants,people,teachers,books,etc.Can all be classified in various ways for ease of understanding.In this unit,we are going to study the features and organization patterns of classification and the use of relevant linking devices.36Sample 1lThe time most students spend studying for a test can be divided into three distinct phases.Phase One,often called the“No problem”phase,runs from the day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before the dreaded exam is passed out.During Phase One,the student is carefree,smiling and enjoying life as usual.When asked by classmates if he has studied for the test yet,his reply will be an assured“No problem”.During Phase One,no actual studying takes place.37lPhase Two is entered two days prior to the test.It is sometimes referred to as the“Tomorrow”phase,since students often reply to questions with the statement,“Ill study tomorrow.”During Phase Two,again,no actual studying takes place,but he is considering it.Phase Three,the final phase,is entered twelve hours before“Zero Hour.”This is the actual phase,characterized by sweaty palms,nervous twitches(抽筋),and confused mental pattern.Phase Three is also termed the“Shock”phase since the students is shocked to discover the imminent nature of the exam and the amount of material to be studied.He will probably be unable to sleep and will mumble meaningless phrases.This phase will not end until the exam is over.38Complete the outline according to the organization of Sample 1 lthe time most students spend studying for a test :lThe time most students spend studying for a test can be divided into three distinct phases.l1)Phase One runs from the day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before the exam is passed out.l2)Phase two is entered two days prior to the test.3)Phase three,the final phase,is entered twelve hours before“Zero Hour.39Sample 2lStudents in our school fall into three groups according to their different intentions of taking part in sports.Many students go to the playground when they feel tired after a few hours of study.These students put much more emphasis on their study efficiency than on the fun of sports.They just want to go back to their classrooms from the playground with clearer ad quicker mind.Thus they dont actually care whether they can enjoy themselves on the sports ground or not.Students that make up the second group are real sports lovers.Sometimes they even put aside their study for a game.They take part in the sport that interests them most,no caring whether it is most beneficial to their health.40Sample 2lThe third group want s beauty from sports.Boys want to become strong;girls want to be slim and graceful.Those who consider sports the only way of reducing weight also belong to this group.They are very carefully choosing the kind of exercise they do,and they are afraid that certain sports may ruin their figures.No matter which group they belong to,they all benefit form sports.41QuestionslWhat is the topic sentence?l What is the subject classified?How many groups has it been divided into?lAre the groups arranged in the same order as in Sample 1?If not,in what order are they arranged?42AnswerslIn Sample 1 groups are arranged in time order;while in Sample 2,groups are arranged in the order of degree,i.e.from the less specific and strong intention to more specific and stronger ones.43outline lstudents in our school fall into three groups according to their different intentions of taking part in sports.:l1)students who go to the playground when they feel tired after study.l2)real sports lovers who even put aside their studies for a game.l3)students who want beauty from sports:lNo matter which group they belong to,they all benefit form sports.44Summary 45II.Principles to classify(by which to classify)Depending on your need and the purpose of writing,you can classify a subject in several ways by using different principles.e.g.1.to classify the friends you have a)find out the categories that can be used to discuss the subject.e.g.age:young,middle-aged,oldlength of friendship:new,old,lifelong marital status:unmarried,married,divorcedsocial status:average Joe and Jane,mid-level management,high-ranking officials b)then find the most relevant category.462.to describe your professors 1)find out the categories that can be used to discuss the subject.(according to.)age gender,personality,teaching style,ranking,popularity,style of dress and accent.b)then find the most relevant categorylTo write about effectiveness of teaching,you may choose teaching style.lTo write about the living conditions,you may choose style of dress.47Practice:Look at the following outlines,and determine whether they are appropriately classified 1.Subject:movies Division:action comedy romance horror Comment:not complete,More:tragedy,science fiction,etc 2.Subject:friends Division:new friends old friends life-long friends female friendsComment:female overlaps with other catergories,should be exclusive483.Subject:newspapersDivision:wrapping garbage making paper planes reading editorialComment:no clear principle,there should be only one,(e.g.the use of newspapers,not the content)4.Subject:college classes Division:enjoy tolerate morning dislikeComment:no clear principle,(divided according to students attitudes to them;the time when the class is given)49SummarylTo achieve effectiveness in classification,we must follow some important principles:l1.select one appropriate principle as the basis of each classification according to your purpose of writing,and stick to it within the whole paragraph.l2.Make sure that the categories are exclusive.They should not overlap.l3.Do not omit any important categories.The classification should be exclusive.50IV.Expressions often used l There are different kinds of people in societylAny good library should contain three types of materials.lUniversities in China can be divided into two kinds ccording to the ownership.lBus drivers in this city fall into the following categories/types:the friendly,the indifferent,and the meanVerbsNounsfall intodivideintogroupintoclassify intobe categorized into classes,categories groups,kinds types aspects51A.these B.third C.Finally D.before E.types F.Then G.Though H.however I.Even though J.IflDepartment stores usually have three different(1)_ of salesmen:the mislocated,the eager-beaver(做事积极、勤奋的人),and the daydreaming one.The mislocated salesman is frequently found three departments away from where he should be.(2)_ he might notice you waiting patiently in his department,it usually takes him at least five minutes to walk back to his department.(3)_,upon his arrival,he tells you that the store is completely out of the item that
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