英语修辞学Rhetoric2.word

英语修辞学(Rhetoric)English Figures of Speech英语修辞的一般规律与特点 General principles and features of English rhetoric 1. 关系词丰富，介词、连词、关系代词和关系副词等的充分利用，使英语成为一种更为形式的语言，即以形合为主的语言。而汉语是以意合为主的语言。That is our policy and that is our declaration. 这就是我们的国策。这就是我们的宣言。 If winter comes, can spring be far behind? 冬天来了，春天还会远吗？ This is the reason why he is leaving so soon. 这就是他所以这么快就要离开的原因。 2. 英语名词用得多，汉语动词用得多。因此，从总体修辞效果上看，英语呈静态，汉语呈动态。I fell madly in love with her, and she with me. 我疯狂地爱上了她，她也疯狂地爱上了我。 A woman with fair opportunities, and without an absolute hump may marry whom she likes. 一个女人只要不是驼背驼得厉害，机会好的话，想嫁给谁就嫁给谁。 Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years, because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses. 激光可以应用于许多科学领域，又适合于各种实际用途，因此成了近年来轰动一时的科学成就之一。3. 英语有“物称倾向”，即主语往往是表示无生命物体的名词或表示事物的名词词组。汉语则有明显的“人称倾向”，即句子的主语往往是人或有生命的东西。My heart went out to the old warrior as spectators pushed by him to shake Darrows hand. 观众从他身边挤过去争相与达罗握手时，我很同情这位久经沙场的老将。 Bitterness fed on the man who had made the world laugh. 这位曾使全世界的人发出笑声的人自己却饱受辛酸。 The sight of his native place called back his childhood. 见到自己的故乡，他想起了童年的情景。 The old mans death was calm and peaceful. （那位）老人死得很安详。 4. 英语被动句用得多，汉语主动句用得多。这更说明了英语的“物称倾向”。An illustration is furnished by an editorial in the Washington Post (January 17, 1962). 华盛顿邮报（1962年1月17日）的一篇社论提供了一个例子。 It has been known for a long time that there is a first relationship between the heart and liver. 长期以来，大家知道心脏和肝脏的关系是最重要的。 The challenge from the Third World has always been foreseen by our shipping companies. 我国的海运公司总能预见来自第三世界的挑战。 5. 英语多用长句和复合句。With the gaining of our political freedom you will remember that there came a conflict between the point of view of Alexander Hamilton, sincerely believing in the superiority of government by a small group of public-spirited and usually wealthy citizens, and, on the other hand, the point of view of Thomas Jefferson, and advocate of government by representatives chosen by all the people, and advocate of the universal right of free thought and free personal living and free religion and free expression of opinion and, above all, the right of free universal suffrage. 想必你们还记得，在我们获得政治自由之后，亚历山大汉密尔顿和托马斯杰弗逊两人在观点上发生了分歧。汉密尔顿对于由一小群热心公益且往往有钱的公民掌管的政府的优越性坚信不疑。杰弗逊则主张政府必须由全民选出的代表掌管。他还主张公民普遍享有思想自由、居住自由、宗教自由和言论自由的权利，特别是享有普选权利。 6. 英语大量使用抽象名词，这类名词涵义概括，指称笼统，覆盖面广，往往有一种“虚”、“泛”、“暗”、“曲”、“隐”的魅力，因而便于用来表达复杂的思想和微妙的情绪。The signs of the times point to the necessity of the modification of the system of administration. 管理体制需要改革，这已越来越清楚了。 No year passes now without evidence of the truth of the statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult. 行政管理工作已变得越来越困难了，每年都证明确实如此。What is Rhetoric?Why Do We Learn Rhetoric?To understand the authors intention better.To find out the common ways people know the world and ways people express themselves.To appreciate the beauty, explicit or not, of the language.To learn how to achieve an effective communication.Division of RhetoricCommunicative Rhetoric 交际修辞 (Negative Rhetoric 消极修辞)- To add to peoples knowledge; accurate, plain;Aesthetic Rhetoric 美学修辞 (Positive Rhetoric 积极修辞)- To get people affected, or moved; vivid, brilliant, colorful.一、语义修辞 1明喻（simile）俗称直喻，是依据比喻和被比喻两种不同事物的相似关系而构成的修辞格。1.The snow was like a white blanket drawn over the field. 2.He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen to hear him crow. 认真观察以上各例，我们会发现它们的特点，由（as）. as, like等引导，这些引导词被称作比喻词（acknowledging word），它们是辨别明喻的最显著的特征，明喻较为直白，比喻物和被比喻物之间相似点较为明显，所以明喻是一种比较好判断的修辞手。 1. Simile(明喻)拉丁语 similis (like)1.three parts : subject (主体) reference （喻体） indicator of resemblance （比喻词）My love is like a red red rose.2。主体和喻体一般指两个不同的事物。John is as tall as a Maypole.五朔节花柱(庆祝五朔节围绕此柱歌舞)五朔节欧洲传统民间节日。用以祭祀树神、谷物神、庆祝农业收获及春天的来临。历史悠久，最早起源于古代东方，后传至欧洲。每年5月1日举行。五朔节前夕，在英国、法国、瑞典的一些地区，人们通常会在家门前插上一根青树枝或栽一棵幼树，并用花冠、花束装饰起来。少女们手持树枝花环，挨家挨户去唱五朔节赞歌，祝福主人。在一些农村，每年5月1日凌晨，青年们便奏着音乐、唱着赞歌，结伴去树林砍树枝，待太阳出来后返回，将树枝插在门窗上。What is simile? E.g.The snow was like a white blank drawn over the field.The structure: The signified, the simile marker, and the signifier本体, 比喻词, 喻体The three uses of similes:Descriptive描述型明喻;Illuminative启示型明喻;Illustrative说明型明喻;Descriptive 描述型Her lips were red, her locks were yellow as gold.Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child whos lost his piece of candy.The big black flies hit us like bombs.Illustrative说明型E.g. What is tennis?Tennis is like a pingpong game scaled up to a sizable court.Its function is to explain abstract or complicated ideas or things unfamiliar to you in simple, concrete ideas, or things familiar to you.Illuminative启发型E.g. What happened to a dream deferred (postponed)? Like a raisin (葡萄干) in the sun? Or fester (化脓) like a sore? Does it stink like a rotten meat?Its function is to give deeper insight into persons or things.Compare the following sentences:Jim looks like his brother Billy.My car runs as fast as the train.A real friend is like a mirror that can help you see any dirt on your face.Life was like a journey full of pitfalls.- (The first two sentences are not cases of simile.) Simile is a comparison between two unlike things across domains (跨领域).Like and as型Marriage is like a beleaguered fortress; those who are without want to get in, and those within want go get out .婚姻象是一个被包围的 堡垒；外面的想要进去，里面的人想要出来。Love goes towards love , as schoolboys from their books; But love from love , towards school with heavy looks.(Shakespeare)赴情人的约会， 象学童抛开书一样， 和情人分别，象学童板着脸上学堂。虚拟句型和what 型The first time I read an excellent book, it is to me as if I had gained a new friend.我头一回读到一本好书， 对我来说好象交到一位新朋友。Judicious praise is to children what the sun is to flowers. (Bovee)明智的表扬对于孩子的作用，就象阳光对于花朵的作用。Than and And 型We have no more right to consume happiness without producing it than to consume wealth without producing it .我们不创造幸福便无权享受幸福， 正如不创造财富也就无权享受财富一样。Love and cough can not hid.恋爱如同咳嗽， 难逃他人耳目。A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled.说出的话犹如抛出的石头， 是收不回来的E.g. The world is a stage.The theory is totally based on solid foundation.A romance was budding.The economy is overheating.She exploded.I notice tears welling up in her eyes.Embarrassed at our noisy children, we sheepishly tried to sneak into the dining room, hoping not to be noticed by others.The temperature fell to a murderous -40.Two steps involved: What do these n., v., adv., adj imply? Structure: The signified is the signifier. 本体 是 喻体。The theory is a building.The romance was a plant.The economy is machinery.She was a container.My tears is a well. We are sheep. The temperature is a murderer.、This elephant is like a snake as anybody can see. 这头象和任何人见到的一样像一条蛇。 、He looked as if he had just stepped out of my book of fairytales and had passed me like a spirit. 他看上去好像刚从我的童话故事书中走出来，像幽灵一样从我身旁走过去。 、It has long leaves that sway in the wind like slim fingers reaching to touch something. 它那长长的叶子在风中摆动，好像伸出纤细的手指去触摸什么东西似的。 2. Metaphor隐喻（Metaphor）希腊语Metapherein (transfer )转换无需借助比喻词，直接将甲事物当作乙事物来描写。也称隐喻，是依据比喻和被比喻两种不同事物的相似或相关关系而构成的修辞格。 例如： 1.His friend has become a thorn in his side.（他的朋友已变成眼中钉肉中刺。） 2.You are your mothers glass.(你是你母亲的翻版。) 3.Hope is a good breakfast, but its a bad supper. 由以上各例可知，暗喻没有引导词，这是明喻和暗喻在形式上的最大区别。换句话说，有为明喻，没有为暗喻。如：He has a heart of stone. He has a heart like stone.很显然，前句是暗喻，后句是明喻。暗喻时，比喻物和被比喻物之间的相似点较为含蓄，猛一看它们毫无关系，实际却有着某种内在联系。 Compressed simile (简缩了的明喻)The solider was as brave as a lion in the battle .The soldier was a lion in a battle . 谈到暗喻，有必要说说它的两种变体（variety）：博喻（sustained metaphor）和延喻（extended metaphor），它们是英语比喻中的特殊类型。 （1）博喻 连续使用多个喻体去比喻主体的方法就叫做博喻。比如： There again came out the second flash, with the spring of a serpent and the shout of a fiend, looked green as an emerald, and the reverberation was stunning.(爆发了第二次闪电，她像蛇一样蜿蜒，如魔鬼般嘶叫，像翠玉般碧绿，轰隆隆震耳欲聋。) 这个例子中对闪电的比喻就用了三个喻体，spring of a serpent（动态），shout of a fiend（声音），green as an emerald(颜色)，它们从不同角度绘声绘色地把闪电呈现在读者面前。由此可见，多喻体的使用其优势是单一喻体所无法比拟的。它可以多角度、多侧面、多层次、多结构地表现主体。 （2）延喻 据Longman Modern English Dictionary解释，延喻即make an initial comparison and then develop it, expanding the authors idea（作出初次比较再扩展，以延伸作者的意图）。请看下例： A photographer is a cod, which produces a million eggs in order that one may reach maturity. (摄影师像鳕鱼，产卵百万为的是长成一条。) 摄影师通常拍片成堆，难觅一成功之作，似鳕鱼产卵无数，长成者廖廖。故萧伯纳把摄影师先比作cod，再进一步用cod的习性比喻之，生动地道出了摄影师的艰辛。这里which后的从句就显示了延喻的功能。 与一般比喻相比延喻的使用更复杂。一般比喻只需抓住主、喻体之间的相似之处，延喻不仅要注意比喻本身，还要注意延伸部分是否与喻体保持了一致。也就是说，延伸部分应当是喻体的一部分，不能游离于其外。 延喻的构成分以下几种： 由动词构成 The mist, like love, plays upon the heart of the hills.（薄雾，如心灵深处的爱，在山的深处飘荡。） b.Her eyes, pools of love, were rippling in tenderness.(她的双眼似爱的池塘，正泛着柔情蜜意的涟漪。) 由介词短语构成 a.The stone shaped as a kitten with crystal eyes.（石头形如小猫，眼似水晶 b.The huge sunlight flamed like a monstrous dahlia with petals of yellow fire.（煤气灯燃得像一朵巨大的大丽花，黄黄的火舌恰似花瓣。） 由句子构成 He is as poor as a church mouse, and a church mouse like him eats like a horse. （他一贫如洗，赤贫的他又特别能吃。） 由从句构成 The chess-board is the world, where the rules of the game are what we call the laws of nature. (棋盘如世界，游戏规则如同自然法则。) 总的来说，延喻是喻体的一部分，能够进一步描绘喻体发出的动作或产生的状态，对喻体特性进行扩展，解释喻体的功用。它使喻体由单一性变化为多样性，在结构、内涵等方面具有单一喻体无法比拟的修辞效果，所以学习好延喻对于提高写作效果是非常有帮助的。 More.、German guns and German planes rained down bombs, shells and bullets. 德国人的枪炮和飞机将炸弹、炮弹和子弹像暴雨一样倾泻下来。 、The diamond department was the heart and center of the store. 钻石部是商店的心脏和核心。 名词型和动词型Marriage is a book of which the first chapter is written in poetry and remaining chapters in prose .结婚， 是一本第一章以诗写成，其余各章以散文写就的书。 He that cannot forgive others breaks the bridge over which he must pass himself for every man has need to be forgiven .不能原谅别人的人， 等于毁掉了他自己必须经过的桥，因为每个人都有需要别人原谅的时候。形容词型和of短语型她对细节有照相机般的记忆力。She has a photographic memory for detail.A policeman waved me out of the snake of traffic and flagged me to stop.一位警察招手要我从长蛇阵般的车流中出来， 并招呼我停下。1) 何等动人的一页又一页篇章！ 这是人类思维的花朵。（徐迟：哥德巴赫猜想）What inspiring chapters! They are the flowers of the human brainwork.2) 霎时间，东西长安街成了喧腾的大海。（袁鹰：十月长安街）At once，the Eastern and Western Changan Roads became roaring oceans.3) Janes uncle is an old fox，up to all kinds of evils. 简的叔叔是个老狐狸，什么坏事都干得出来。4) After that long talk，Jim became the sun in her heart. 那次长谈之后，吉姆成了她心中的太阳。a bed of roses 安乐窝clean hands 两袖清风curtain-lecture 枕头风like mushroom 雨后春笋mushroom fame 一夜成名a mushroom millionaire 暴发户3. Personification: (拟人）It gives human form of feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes(赋予) to inanimate(无生命的) objects, or to ideas and abstractions(抽象). 把事、物、观念等拟作人，赋予它们以人的思想。感情与行为方式。e.g The wind whistled through the trees.Money talks; money prints; money broadcasts; money reigns. 幻灯片45拟人（personification） 拟人手法是把物，诸如动物、植物、物体、思想或抽象概念等比作人，赋予它们人的特性、外表、思维、动作。即把本来适用于人的词汇用于物，使之人格化。请看下面举例： 1.Freedom blushed for shame.（自由因羞愧而脸红。） 2.How rarely reasons guide the stubborn choice.(固执的选择很少是理智的。) 3.The sun looks over the mountains rim.(太阳挂在山边。) 4. The moans of the autumn wind wound in the deep of the mountains.(秋风的呻吟萦绕在大山深处。) 5. Flu stalked about, touching one here and there with his evil finger. (流感四处游荡，用它罪恶的手指碰碰这个，碰碰那个。) 4. Euphemism(委婉)Euphemismos (good speech)以较文雅，悦耳或温婉的说法来代替粗野，刺耳或直露的话。幻灯片47委婉的英语定义是speak with good words，就是把话说得好听些，婉转些，使听者感到愉快。委婉法在各种语言中都有使用，十分广泛。 英语中的委婉修辞大致可以分为两类，一类是用暗示手法，转换角度使语言温和愉悦，另一类是用好字眼来代替不好的刺眼的字眼。 1.Your painting is not so good. (画画得差，却说成“不太好”，good总比bad好听。)2.He wasnt at all embarrassed by her low-income, and decided to marry her soon.(这里的low-income其实是贫穷poverty的婉转暗示。) 3.Jackson, a black brought up in the inner city, ran swiftly along the track and beat all the others. (inner city用来婉称slum贫民窟，表示了对那位黑人运动员的尊重。) 有关疾病、残疾等/人体，排泄，性爱，生育等疾病：look off colorUnder the weather Social disease(AIDS)残疾：disabled; auditory-impaired; visually retarded 衰老：golden age: feel ones age 死亡：be at rest ; return to dust; be no longer with us人体：in a state of nature ;In ones birthday suit排泄: pass air ; make a noise (放屁) wash ones hands ; relieve oneself , answer the call of nature (大小便)性爱：have relations with ; make love Sleep around (乱搞那女关系)生育：in trouble (未婚先孕)In the family way ;eating for two (怀孕)有关职业，社会问题的委婉语职业：补鞋匠 shoetrician垃圾清运工garbologist园丁land architect家庭妇女domestic engineer商场巡视员aisle managerTo hook ; to palm; to walk away with (顺手牵羊)吸毒：to blow snow;Joy powder（毒品）Lady snow (可卡因)Do time (服刑)有关政治、经济、军事、外交的委婉语政治：eyes only (绝密文件)经济：adjustment downward（效益不佳）军事：adjustment of the front (撤退)外交：an underdeveloped country 贫穷落后的国家More ExamplesAnd , it being low water, he went out with the tide.(Charles Dickens,Davidcopperfield)正是退潮的时候，他跟潮水一道走了。（溺水而死）If you will allow me , I will call your carriage for you .（Oscar Wilde）如果你愿意的话，我去给你叫辆车。（下逐客令）I am afraid she cant act that part-She is a little on the plump side.恐怕她扮演不了那个角色-她有些发福。We had three main difficulties with regard to those documents.关于那些文件，我们有三个主要的不便同意之处。Difficulty=disagreementThe U.S. side declared: The United States acknowledges that all the Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain there is but one China and that Taiwan is part of China. The United States does not challenge that position.美国方面声明，美国认识到，在台湾海峡两岸的所有中国人都认为只有一个中国，台湾是中国的一部分，美国政府对这一立场不提出异议。提喻（synecdoche）又称举隅法，主要特点是局部代表全体，或以全体喻指部分，或以抽象代具体，或以具体代抽象。例如： 、The Great Wall was made not only of stones and earth, but of the flesh and blood of millions of men. 长城不仅是用石头和土建造的，而且是用几百万人的血和肉建成的。 句中的“the flesh and blood”喻为“the great sacrifice”（巨大的牺牲） “.saying that it was the most beautiful tongue in the world,.” 他说这是世界上最美的语言。 这里用具体的“tongue”代替抽象的“language” Many eyes turned to a tall,20year black girl on the U.S. team. ”。 很多人将眼光投向美国队一个高高的岁的黑姑娘。 这里的“many eyes”代替了“many personsMetonymy借代Metonymia (希腊语)changing of name 故意不用需要说明的人或物的本称，而是借与该人或该物密切相关的事物来代替。指两种不同事物并不相似，但又密不可分，因而常用其中一种事物名称代替另一种。 What is learned in the cradle is carried to the grave .(幼小所学， 终身不忘)Cradle (birth ), grave (birth )表达简练， 具体， 生动， 有趣。5.夸张（hyperbole） 夸张手法是人们从主观出发，有意识地把事实夸大，故意言过其实，以达到强调或突出的一种修辞手法。它偏重于情感，而不太注重事实，表达得比实际事情更高、更强烈、更有集中性，具有诙谐、讥讽、褒贬等功用。一般说来，凡事物，都可适当地利用夸张去修饰。 例如：1.The tumult reached the stars.(闹声震天。) 2.My gray hair can make a long long rope.(白发三千丈。) 3.I havent seen you for ages.(几辈子不见了。) 4.Having been elected chairman, he felt as if he were on the top of the world.(被选为主席后，他感觉似乎站在了地球之巅。) 5.He hurried to the railway station, looking at his watch a hundred times.(他匆匆朝火车站去，看了一百遍表。) 夸张的最常用手法有以下几种： （1）利用数词 His eyes fell on the page, but his mind was a million miles away.(他的眼睛在书页上，可心思却在十万八千里之外。) I am ten times better than you in handwriting.(我写字比你好十倍。) （2）利用极端概念 Ill keep it a secret till the end of the world.(我将把秘密保持到世界末日。) I will love you till the seas gone dry, the rocks melt with the sun.(我爱你到海枯石烂。) （3）利用形容词和副词 The cost mounted to astronomical figures.(花销达到天文数字。) I am thirsty to death for the book.(我想那本书想得要命。) 如果用terrible, terrific, awful, horrible, fantastic等感情强烈的词去修饰并不重要的事情，就具有夸张的成分。 （3）利用形容词和副词的最高级 Im the happiest man in the world.(我是世界上最幸福的人。) Shakespeare is universally well known. (莎士比亚名冠天下。) （5）利用介词短语 Bill Gates rounded up a wealth beyond calculation.(比尔盖茨聚财无数。) Dont let the chance slip through fingers.(不要让机会溜掉。) （3）利用形容词和副词的最高级 Im the happiest man in the world.(我是世界上最幸福的人。) Shakespeare is universally well known. (莎士比亚名冠天下。) （5）利用介词短语 Bill Gates rounded up a wealth beyond calculation.(比尔盖茨聚财无数。) Dont let the chance slip through fingers.(不要让机会溜掉。) （6）利用名词 He is always punctual as the Big Ben.(他总是守时如大本钟。) They cried to high heaven for a timely rainfall.(他们喊声震天乞求及时雨。) 6矛盾修饰法（oxymoron）顾名思义，这种修饰法就是把明显矛盾的词用在一起，以产生语言上的奇效。既然是矛盾的词，其词汇意义往往相对立，形成反义关系，它们用在一块可以深刻地揭示事物间矛盾对立，同时又协调统一的方面。例如： 1.The interview lasted for an endless morning, I got quite exhausted. (“morning”不可能“endless”，因为“interview”把人搞得“exhausted”，才有了时间上的“endless”。把有限和无限的东西放在一起，形成矛盾修饰。) 2.He sat there and watched them, so changelessly changing, so bright and dark, so grave and gay.(他坐在那儿注视着他们，觉得眼前的景象既是始终如一，又是变化多端，既是光彩夺目，又是朦胧黑暗，既是庄严肃穆，又是轻松愉快。) 矛盾修饰法的特点就是构成相互关联的、属于反义的词被安排在一块，二者之间彼此对立，却又有着必然的联系，其产生的语言效果非常独特，令人过目不忘。比如： cruel kindness 残酷的仁慈 painful pleasure 悲喜交加 ugly beautiful 丑中带俊 wise fool 聪明的傻瓜 loving hate 爱恨交织 unfaithful faith 不坚定的信心 old young man 事故的年轻人walking dead 行尸走肉 从以上这些例子，我们可以发现它们结构上的一个特点，即意义相反的词都存在修饰和被修饰的关系，我们可以总结为以下几方面： （1）形容词+名词：cruel kindness, orderly chaos, wise fool, painful pleasure (2)动词分词+名词：loving hate, walking dead (3)形容词+形容词：ugly beautiful, bitter sweet, poor rich (4)副词+形容词：mercifully fatal, deadly alive, disagreeably pleasant (5)副词+动词分词：changelessly changing, stably moving (6)名词+名词：enemy friend, life-and-death (7)动词+副词：hurry slowly, talk silently, live deadly 7移位修饰法（transferred epithet）移位修饰法就是将仅可用于修饰某种东西的词汇移植修饰到另类东西上的一种语言使用手法，即将甲事物的修饰成分转移到乙事物上，使风马牛不相及的成分凑在一起，反而使得语言简练凝缩，形象生动。比如我们经常使用的“Happy New Year!”, “year”是不会“happy”的，如果非要生硬地说“You feel happy in the new year.”，反倒累赘了。其它如“a sleepless night”，“the smiling spring”，“hurrying autumn”，等等，都是常见的例子。由于这种修辞手法的独特性和形象生动性，其在英语中的使用颇为广泛。 1.由修饰人物转为修饰事物 (1)He lay in bed, smoking his thinking pipe.（他躺在床上，抽烟思考。） (2)Mother simply couldnt fall asleep on his painful pillow.（一落枕就想头疼的事，母亲简直睡不着。） 2.由修饰动物转为修饰事物 (1)The neighborhood couldnt stand to hear the gnawing cry from the husband over his wifes death. (邻居们不忍听到丈夫因妻子去世而撕心裂肺的哭声。gnaw指虫子等的“咬啮”，形容的那种哭声难以言状。) (2)The crawling minutes seem to be ever-lasting. (慢逝的分秒似乎永无止境。crawl爬行。) 3.由修饰人转为修饰人的某部分或与人有关的状态 （1）Hans shrugged a scornful shoulder.(汉斯轻蔑地耸耸肩。scornful常用于修饰人的心理状态。) （2）She showed me an appalled gesture.(她向我作了一个吃惊的手势。) 4.由修饰具体事物转为修饰抽象事物 （1）I have mountainous difficulty in under