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考试题型：单项选择；填空；名词解释；简答；案例分析。卷面分数100分，占总分70%；平时分数占总分30%，包括：课堂作业及课后作业注意：有些题是要举例的，这个没有统一答案，给大家写上该内容在书上的页数，大家看完书理解了自己举例。广告心理学复习题1. 广告心理学的研究对象和基本研究内容是什么?研究对象：消费者与广告活动互相作用过程中产生的心理现象及其存在的心理活动规律研究内容：传播心理，说服心理，相关环境影响因素以及广告心理效果测定，品牌心理。2. 简述广告心理学的产生和发展过程。产生：1879年德国心理学家冯特就建立第一个心理学实验室，标志着科学心理学的诞生。1895年，美国明尼苏达大学心理实验室的H.盖尔率先采用问卷法，研究消费者对广告及广告商品的态度和看法，他的研究是广告心理学方面最早的研究。1901年起两年内美国西北大学的心理学家W.D.斯科特发表12篇有关广告心理的文章，1903年将自己有关广告心理学的研究结果汇集出版，书名为广告原理，此书的出版标志着广告心理学的诞生。1908年德国心理学家敏斯特伯格出版广告心理学，1912年发表心理学与经济生活一书。发展过程：基本的心理学理论影响到心理学的每一个领域，包括广告心理学。第一次世界大战后，社会心理学家对说服等心理学问题继续进行了很多研究，取得突出的发展。这些研究成果广泛应用于广告实践，从而促进了广告心理学的发展。20世纪40年代后，对消费者深层动机的探讨引起人们极大的兴趣。20世纪50年代人本主义心理学的需要层次理论为广告心理学中消费者需要的研究提供了基础。20世纪60年代后，受认知心理学影响，广告心理学研究领域内的认知研究越来越多，研究技术手段也大大提高。我国广告心理学研究起步较晚，受西方研究取向的影响比较大。20世纪80年代末90年代初，我国台湾出版的一些广告心理学书籍对广告心理的研究起到促进作用。3. 学习广告心理学的意义有哪些？广告可以激发消费者的购买动机并提供相关信息广告创意、广告设计需要把握消费者的心理行为特征准确的把握消费者的价值观和消费行为特征需要采用科学的心理学研究方法4. 具备什么特征的广告对受众的吸引力大？大幅面广告、广告方式采用活动或者变化的、彩色的广告、恰当的位置、新异性、有趣的信息、符合受众的消费需要、悬念广告5. 注意的特点和功能？特多：指向性和集中性功能：选择功能、维持功能、调节功能。6. 从心理学的角度分析，为什么好的悬念广告能起到好的广告效果？制造悬念引起受众的好奇心，使得他们对广告从被动状态转为主动状态，让他们主动去注意悬念的结果。7. 什么是感觉阈限？什么是阈下知觉广告？感觉阈限（sensory threshold），用于测量感觉系统感受性大小的指标，用刚能引起感觉的刺激量来表示。可分为绝对感觉阈限和差别感觉阈限两类。 8. 阈下知觉广告和植入式广告（例如隐含在电影或电视画面中的广告）的区别是什么？植入式广告视觉器官虽然可以接收到闪过的消息（能够意识到），但是由于广告闪现速度太快，或刺激强度太弱或太强，人们往往认识不到这是广告，从而在不知不觉中接受了广告。而阈下知觉广告是人们意识不到自己看到了。9. 有哪些因素影响知觉的解释？在广告中可以怎样加以应用？举例说明。影响因素：经验因素、情绪因素、态度因素。应用：45页人们利用经验进行感知。有时在知觉事物时，可能不会看到事物的全部，但是人们一样可以做出正确的感知。知觉过程中的推论。人们在知觉过程中会进行推论，利用这种现象制作的广告往往也会收到意想不到的效果。10. 举例说明知觉特性在广告中的应用。43页11. 记忆过程包含哪几个环节？记忆系统是由哪几个部分组成的？包含识记、保持和提取三个环节。记忆系统是由感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆组成。12. 广告播放一遍很难让人记住，重复播放多了又惹人烦。从心理学角度分析广告重复的积极作用和消极作用。积极作用：不断的重复广告在一定程度上说明该产品仍是富有竞争力的，能够给消费者以信心，同时，能够帮助消费者识记广告中的信息，并且保持对这些信息的记忆。消极作用：过度重复鉴于没有新的内容而导致厌倦的产生。随着重复次数的继续增加，以致于把认知活动转移到其他无关的信息，其结果难以产生态度的改变，甚至导致消极态度。 13. 举例说明广告该如何重复才能起到积极效果。根据学习过程的“先多后少”和遗忘过程的“先快后慢”的特点，对于广告发布的时间重复间隔应采用“先短后长”的策略最为合适。根据“先短后长”的策略，广告电话重复内容就要有变化，具有不同创意的广告更易被受众记住。比如香奈儿广告，他的香水始终展现的是高贵优雅的形象，虽然在电视、杂志也经常看到，但是他的广告创意却是不断变化的，每次都给人耳目一新的感觉。14. 怎样利用记忆规律来提高广告效果？举例说明 65页广告的重复策略。把广告信息编码组块。增加对象维度。 利用汉语特点组织编码。15. 表象和想象的区别和联系是什么？创造想象和再造想象有什么区别？表象是在知觉的基础上产生的，构成表象的材料来自过去知觉过的内容。想象是新形象的创造，想象的内容往往出现在现实以前，或者是现实中不可能出现的事物。对已有表象进行加工改造而形成新形象的过程就是想象。所以想象是在记忆表象的基础上产生，是对记忆表象的进一步加工。再造想象是根据词语的描述或者图示，在头脑中形成与之相符合或者相仿的新形象的过程。而再造想象不依据现场的描述，独立创造新形象的过程，再造想象具有首创性、独立性和新颖性的特点。16. 举例说明广告中的创造想象。 77页17. 什么是联觉？什么是联想？联想和联觉在广告中的作用是什么？联觉是感觉相互作用的一种特殊表现， 由一种已经产生的感觉，引起另一种感觉的心理作用。联想是由当前感知的事物回忆起另一种有关的事物，或者由想起的一种事物联想起有关的另一种事物。联想的作用：广告可以利用人们的联想，使广告的时间 和空间在人们的心理上得以扩大和延伸。联觉的作用：联觉现象用于广告设计当中，可以让受众从视觉的画面中“听见”、“闻到”、“接触到”、“尝到”什么，从听到的声音中“看到”、“闻到”、“接触到”、“尝到”什么，这样就在一定程度上突破了媒体的局限性，给受众带来跟丰富的体验。18. 态度有哪些结构成分？广告商如何使受众形成或改变对某种产品的态度？态度是由情感、认知和行为构成的综合体。改变情感成分（经典调节反射、激发对广告本身的情感、更多接触）、改变行为成分、改变认知成分，是常用的策略和方法（改变信念、增加新的信念、改变权重）19. 态度改变的ELM模型的基本观点是什么？ELM理论认为，品牌卷入程度是决定信息如何被加工处理以及态度如何改变的关键因素。高卷入程度能导致一条通向态度改变的“中枢路径”，在中枢路径中，态度改变是消费者认真考虑和综合信息的结果。在此过程中，消费者主动考虑广告的信息来源、商标产品等，收集和检验过去的有关体验，分析判断广告商品性能等，最后作出综合的评价。而低卷入程度只能导致一条通向态度改变的“边缘路径”。这时消费者只是对所获得的信息进行粗浅的处理，并依据信息中的一些显而易见的线索形成对品牌或者店铺的印象。从态度改变的效果来看，中枢路径所引起的态度变化比边缘路径要持久，中枢路径所形成的态度可能比边缘路径形成的态度预测后来的行为要好。20. 如何增强广告的说服力？提高信息源的可信度、提供双面猫信息、给消费者以积极的情感体验21. 如何根据消费者的需要制定广告诉求策略？满足消费者的优势需要根据不同消费群体的兴趣点选择广告诉求点把握需要的动态特征根据竞争对手的广告主题选择适当的广告诉求点22. 什么是广告的理性诉求？为什么独特卖点说属于理性诉求？该如何寻找独特卖点？在广告中突出自己商品所具有的特性及优越性，提出事实或进行特性比较，通过展示商品的固有特性、用途和使用方法等，提供关于商品的事实性信息而使消费者形成一定的品牌态度，这种广告诉求方式即是理性诉求，这种广告策略被称为“硬销售”。USP的基本前提是将消费者视为理性思维者，认为他们在做出购买决策时追求利益最大化。由此出发，广告应建立在理性诉求上，宣传能带给消费者的实际利益。也就是说，对准消费者的需要，承诺提供给他们实惠，同时给出这种承诺的事实性支持理由，以回答消费者的疑问。第一，每一则广告必须向消费者传达一个消费主张，这个主张必须让消费者明白“买这样的商品，你会得到什么样的特殊利益”。第二，这一主张必须是竞争对手做不到或者没有、无法提出的，在品牌和诉求方面是独一无二的。第三，这一主张必须聚焦在一个点上，集中强力打动、感染和吸引消费者来 购买广告商品。23. 制约广告理性诉求效果的因素有哪些？与商品有关的因素。产品的生命周期与同质化程度。购买风险水平。商品的吸引力。与消费者有关的因素。消费者对有关商品的知识和经验。消费者的社会经济地位。消费者的购买预期。消费者的个性心理特点。24. 情感广告是如何起到说服作用的？情感广告是说服作业具体表现在积极地情感反应会导致对广告中品牌/商品的积极态度。可以通过直接的方式和间接的方式起到作用。直接作用方式。是指积极或消极的情感直接造成态度的变化。经典条件反射作用过程。对客体积极态度是可以通过经典条件化引起的。社会学习。借助于观察和模仿，即通过广告中人物的活动和情感体验使自己得到同样的体验和感受，而广告中的人物的活动和情感体验是同使用或不使用特定的产品联系在一起的。间接作用方式。情感通过对信息加工过程的影响，间接的影响态度的变化。情感对信息加工规程的影响，一种表现是当呈现的信息同受众的情感体验一致时，人们对呈现信息的回忆成绩要比对不一致信息回忆的更好。另一种表现是，在信息加工程度上对于令人振奋的说服信息，积极的情感体验者比消极的情感体验者了解的更多。而令人沮丧的说服信息则相反。25. 广告中常见的情感类型有哪些？举例说明。 142页美感、亲热感、幽默感、害怕感26. 广告怎样使用惧怕诉求才能取得好效果？当惧怕诉求引起的恐惧程度很低时，不足以使被说服者产生较大的心理压力，说服效果不好。如果惧怕或者威胁的诉求太强，可能激发消费者知觉防御机制，从而导致他们对面临的问题产生回避反应，拒不接受说服信息，也不会产生好的说服效果。一般情况下，中等强度的威胁说服效果最好。27. 什么是广告的心理效果？如何测评广告的心理效果？广告的心理效果也称广告的接触效果。是指广告呈现之后使接受者产生的各种心理效应，包括对受众在知觉、记忆、理解、情绪情感、动机与行为等诸多心理特征方面的影响。这是广告效果最核心的部分，对它的测定最能反映出广告宣传效力的大小。广告的心理效果测定，包括消费者对广告信息的注意、星期、情绪、记忆、理解、信任、欲望、行动等心理活动的不同侧面，概括起来说，就是要了解消费者的态度和行为反应。测量的主要项目有：注意度、知名度、理解度、记忆度、信任度、购买动机、视听率、行动率等。实际上，对广告的心理效果的测定，在事前、事中、事后测评中都要涉及，这也反映出他在广告效果测定中的重要地位。28. 什么是品牌的识别特征？品牌的外部识别特征有哪些？品牌的内部识别特征有哪些？试举例说明。 173页品牌的识别性特征是指品牌名称、标识物等符号系统带来的外在特征。企业通过品牌整体规划和设计所获得的品牌符号具有特殊的个性和强烈的视觉冲击力,以帮助目标受众来区别本产品和其他产品。 外部特征：品牌名称、标识、吉祥物、形象代言人和其他视觉特征。内部特征：价值观、信仰、情感和其他个性特点，统称为品牌个性。29. 什么是品牌的美誉度？如何利用情感的迁移来增强品牌的美誉度？美誉度是大众对商品品质或者企业特质的反映。这种反映是在认知的基础上，一方面形成积极信念（相信这种商品或这个企业会给自己提供某种利益），同时又伴有美好的情感体验（好感度），产生了积极的评价。美誉度是引发认牌购买的直接动力。一是借助于他人的良好声誉来提高品牌的美誉度，“名人广告”和“名人品牌”就是与这个途径相应的市场策略；二是利用成熟品牌的声誉来创建新品牌，这种从已有的核心品牌而来的扩展或延伸，即通常所说的“品牌延伸”。30. 品牌的忠诚度体现在哪些方面，如何测量品牌的忠诚度？主要体现在认牌购买的行为模式中。测量在选择商品的顺序、购买比例、重复购买和品牌的偏好。31. 品牌的知名度、美誉度和忠诚度三者之间的关系如何？举例说明。 181页品牌态度发展的第一步，是部分品牌从众多品牌中进入到消费大众“了解”的行列，从而获得了知名度。其中的一些又进一步深化，使人们相信它们能够提供某种或某些利益，因而对它们产生依赖和好感。这样它们便获得了美誉度，成为“可接受”的 品牌。购买后的消费或使用，使消费者感到满意，从而获得正强化，形成对品牌的忠诚，产生了认牌购买，即“再购买”或“持续购买”，即忠诚度。32. 网络广告有哪些常见的形式？旗帜广告、图标广告、文字链接、电子邮件广告、新闻组广告、网上问卷调查、关键字广告、互动游戏式广告、壁纸广告、弹出广告、通栏广告、巨型广告。33. 与传统的媒体广告相比，网络广告的优劣如何？传播范围极大、非强迫性传送资讯、受众数量可准确统计、灵活的实时性、强烈 交互性与感官性。请您删除一下内容，O(_)O谢谢！2016年中央电大期末复习考试小抄大全，电大期末考试必备小抄，电大考试必过小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon activation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. For a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the development of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, and surrealism, became more personally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the expressive violence and activity in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Science and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the Greeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station, man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slopemof a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its direction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation ofalgebraic geometry. circle, closed plane curve consisting of all points at a given distance from some fixed point, called the center. A circle is a conic section cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone. The term circle is also used to refer to the region enclosed by the curve, more properly called a circular region. The radius of a circle is any line segment connecting the center and a point on the curve; the term is also used for the length r of this segment, i.e., the common distance of all points on the curve from the center. Similarly, the circumference of a circle is either the curve itself or its length of arc. A line segment whose two ends lie on the circumference is a chord; a chord through the center is the diameter. A secant is a line of indefinite length intersecting the circle at two points, the segment of it within the circle being a chord. A tangent to a circle is a straight line touching the circle at only one point, the point of contact, or tangency, and is always perpendicular to the radius drawn to this point. A circle is inscribed in a polygon if each side of the polygon is tangent to the circle; a circle is circumscribed about a polygon if all the vertices of the polygon lie on the circumference. The length of the circumference C of a circle is equal to (see pi) times twice the radius distance r, or C=2r. The area A bounded by a circle is given by A=r2. Greek geometry left many unsolved problems about circles, including the problem of squaring the circle, i.e., constructing a square with an area equal to that of a given circle, using only a straight edge and compass; it was finally proved impossible in the late 19th cent. (see geometric problems of antiquity). In modern mathematics the circle is the basis for such theories as inversive geometry and certain non-Euclidean geometries. The circle figures significantly in many cultures. In religion and art it frequently symbolizes heaven, eternity, or the universe.
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