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目录一比较3二时态11三指代12四省略20五独立主格21六同位语22七分词24八并列28九句子及其它成分299.1Run-on sentence连写句299.2There be309.3冠词309.4句子完整结构319.5夹心修饰319.6Redundancy word list319.7嵌入式关系分句329.8不定式329.9As & When 引导的状语从句339.10倒装大全，大爱总结大全349.11列举35十定语从句36十一虚拟语气38十二重点词组的用法3912.1Except3912.2Require4012.3Number 用法4112.4While 的用法4312.5Date to/ at4412.6Intend4512.7Help4612.8Also4612.9Expect4612.10Due to4612.11Tend4712.12Bother4712.13Support4712.14unqualified & unqualifying4812.15Plan4812.16After4812.17Prohibit4812.18Neither4812.19As4912.20to 和 in order to4912.21表原因5012.22Reach5012.23to do for doing5012.24时间状语5012.25Capability & Ability5012.26Especially & specially5112.27Need5112.28Whether or not5112.29介词加that5112.30Estimate5112.31Conclude5212.32Be known5212.33Design 固定搭配5212.34according to 与 in accordance with5212.35Inhabit5312.36Method5312.37So & As5312.38With & By5312.39Conceive5412.40Other than5412.41介词词组5412.42Attempt5412.43Despite5512.44Amount5512.45As many5512.46Extend5512.47不能接被动语态的动词或短语5512.48Announce5612.49Because of 与 account of5612.50Limit5612.51Through & by5612.52单复数5712.53Efficient5712.54Namely5712.55With5812.56Make & allow5812.57Ensure的固定搭配58一比较1. 词组：less/fewer than X percent of Y，less或fewer的选用取决于Y是否可数，本题的比较对象是drive-ins。既然全句比较的是可数名词，相应地，需要用are、fewer和many/number等与可数名词复数形式相一致的表述。More + adj + n注意more + adj. + n.的结构，往往都有修饰歧义，因为more可以做形容词也可以做副词，不知more是修饰adj.，还是修饰n.如more fuel-efficient small cars可能有下面两种意思： more fuel-efficient small cars：词组的核心意思是更多的车，而这些车是经济省油的 more fuel-efficient small cars：更经济省油的小车Less Less要与than搭配，不能与(as) compared to搭配。比较结构标志词比较结构标志词：nowherethan ; any other places thanWhereas/while/like/unlike的互换比较（comparison）1. 比较：(1) whereas = while（while前后句子之结构要求并列相对）(2) whereas连接的平行比较只要求对比的核心逻辑上有对称关系，不要求对称位置必须是对称名词，下面句子中主从句的主语分别是energy和nuclear power并不是对称名词，但是对比的核心都是“核能发电占总产出能量的份额”：标准书面语中，like/unlike后只加名词(不一定具体名词)表比较，不能加不定式短语,分词短语(prep 1-54 unlike cooking with speices错),句子或介短。（后面接这些东西的时候unlike要改为whereas等等）。(4) like/unlike是严格的硬梆梆比较，比较对象必须严格对等，中间不能插入任何成分比如介词短语As & than 的省略1. as+adj/adv+as或more than固定搭配：as或than引导比较从句中的省略原则-from 白勇语法1) 比较从句谓语与主句谓语相同，可用do，did，does代替。2) 比较从句连系动词be与主句连系动词be相同，可以省略be，也可以不省略。3) 主语谓语动词短语使用“助动词（如have，has，had，will）或情态动词（can，could，may，should）+verb”形式时，比较从句往往省略verb，保留助动词或情态动词。4) 比较从句的主语和谓语与主句的主语和谓语相同时，可以全部省去，常常保留做状语的介词短语或状语从句。5) 比较从句的主语与主句主语相同，可以省略。A is more * than B 比较比较-主语比较 1.（1）对主谓宾全的句型主语比较：A do sth than B do.（AB为对等名词，加do是为了显示这是一个可以发出动作的名词，因而确定是主语，进而确定是主语对比）。时态要据后定。There be 句型等同于一般的主谓宾俱全的句型。 （2）主语相同，状语的比较主语若相同，可省，但助动词不能省。如： As a result of the continuing decline in the birth rate, fewer people will enter the labor force in the 1980s than (few people省略)did in the 1960s and 1970s, a twenty-year period during which people born after the war swelled the ranks of workers. 2.对只有主谓，没有宾语的句子，因为没有宾语，只可能有主语比较，因而不需要重复do来确认这是一个可发出动作的主语，所以其比较形式如下（如果主语有定语成分，必须要that/those来指代）： I eat faster than you.注意与下句区别 I eat apple faster than you do 如果写成 I eat apple faster than you 按GMAC的理解，从语法上就变成我吃苹果比吃你快，成了宾语比较。逻辑上显然不通。 3.主系表结构的比较与主谓结构相同。如果时态不一致，则需补出助词，如： The economy of Florida is more diversified than it was ten years ago Just as A do, so B dojust as A do, so B do平行比较结构的习惯搭配：意思是：就如同AB*: 这里的as是不能用like,whereas的。而且likeso不符合搭配习惯，应该去掉so*: just as with和just like都是很wordy的2. 下面三种形式无区别（后两种强烈语气，不可以随意删掉so）前后都要用句子，不能只用短语。Just as , so Just as you sow, so you will reap 主从句要尽量形式对称Just as , as Just as you sow, as you will reap 主从句要尽量形式对称Just as , so too 主句要部分倒装(so too后是主句) Just as you sow, so too will you reap so with是错误结构。(prep 1-15)l as with的结构在日常语法中是对的(意思为“正如的情况一样”， 看作是as is the same with的省略式，with 后面常跟名词、动名词或what从句)：倍数表达法一、倍数表达法1、twice的用法：twice as manyas; twice as muchas; twice + n.(可以是代词，比如that); twice + what从句; *：一个大家常误会的句子：The farm has more than twice as many cows as it has pigs.: 农场有多于猪两倍多的牛的数量（农场牛的数量比猪的两倍还要多）。（很多人会误读为猪比牛多。）解读方法：可以类比一下A has B twice as many as C这个比较句型也可以写为A has twice as many B as C. 所以句子的核心是A has B，即：The farm has cows. 详细解读：twice as as中前一个as是副词，more than twice as修饰many；而as it has pigs中的as自然是个连词，所以后面跟的是一个adverbial clause（状语从句/副词从句），而asas句型比较特殊，后面的as要与前面as所修饰的内容相呼应，所以as it has pigs应该与前面as所修饰的对象many相呼应，即as it has pigs也是修饰了many。不管怎么说as it has pigs都不是核心成分。这样翻译过来就是农场有牛，相当于两倍多的猪。故，牛多猪少。2、用动词表达倍数：double/triple/quadruple/quintuple/sextuple -这些动词可以做形容词(double还能做adv, predeterminer)sth. double sth.; sth. is doubled; sth. double(adj.);几个永远错误的形式：(1)produce double； a doubling of; produce a doubling(2)as much as twice the apples(much与apples矛盾)（要改为twice as many apples as; sth. double sth.）*：这几个动词可以用主动也可以用被动，但是不能和as搭配;（差不多记住这句话就可以）3、times(或数字) as + 形容词或副词+as;4、sb. be + 百分数 + more likely (to do sth.) than to do sth.(前面的to do 能省，后面的不能省) 如：at least fifty percent less likely than those who are sedentary to die of a heart attack5、表达倍数用“ times + more +adj.+than， time as +adj.+as”都正确6、三类表示倍数的形容词为：twofold, threefold, fourfold, tenfold等。以twofold为例，其意思为two times as much or as many of something。该类词为形容词，多用于构成形容词名词的词组，如：a threefold increase in revenue，少用于比较两个事物之间的倍数关系。二、章振邦语法中介绍的倍数表达法：i. x times(twice) + the + n. (twice还能做determiner)ii. x times adj. (比较形式) thaniii. x times as adj. as 注意里面的adj.要和前面的名词匹配A do x times as adj. x as B do iv. x times + what 分句 (名词性从句相当于名词)v. x-foldvi. double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, sextupleTimes 作比较时的用法1. times做比较时的用法1）X times+as+adij./adv.+as2）X times+the+n.3）X times more thanTwicetwice只能作副词, 在句子中表达的意思却是比较, 这样的题目, 首先要弄清楚比较的双方是否合理, 如果合理的话, 再看twice作为副词的位置: 可以用在as.as或比较级之前, 也可以放在比较点的名词之前, 担要保证twice前后的词要能直接搭配(副词的作用).eg: He is twice the man he was. = He has twice the strength he had =He is twice as strong as he was.Twice as many/much as 结构1. 关于twice as many/much as结构：2. If you say twice asmany, then this construction should be paired with acountable noun.e.g.,twice as many dogs- dogs is a countable noun3. If you said twice asmuch, then this construction should be paired with anuncountable noun.e.g.,twice as much water- water is an uncountable noun4. If the noun in question is already anexplicitly numerical quantity, then you should useneithermuch nor many. Instead, you should just use twice or double by itself.e.g.,twice the increase- increase is an explicitly numerical quantity5. These rules are followed pretty closely.so, for instance:twice as much water- correct, since water is an uncountable noun (but is not an explicitly numerical quantity)twice the water.- incorrect, since water is not a numerical quantitytwice as much as the increase.- incorrect; redundanttwice the increase.- correct类似just as 的结构what = just as,意为“恰像，犹如，好比”用作连词,引导比较状语从句(1) 惯用句式是：A is to B what C is to D. 意为“A对B而言正如C对D一样”例如：Air is to us What water is to fish. 空气对于我们犹如水对于鱼。(介词to表示两者的关系) (2)也有“A is for B what C is for D.”句式。例如：Poultry is for the cook what canvas is for the paint. 厨师离不了家禽正如画家离不开画布一样。（介词for表示“供使用”）(3)what 引导的从句也可以放在句首,其句式是: What C is to D, that A is to B.(= A is to B what C is to D.) 在这一结构中，喻体在前，主体在后，相当于“just as.,so.”结构,意思也是“A对B而言正如C对D一样”例如:What blood vessel is to a mans body, that railway is to transportation.（=Just as blood vessel is to a mans body, so Railway is to transportation.）铁路对于运输,好比血管对于人体一样。(4)需要注意的是what不可以直接被just as替换，just as需要有遵循属于自己的平行比较格式。比较之庖丁解牛对主谓宾全的句型主语比较： A do sth than B do.（AB为对等名词，加do是为了显示这是一个可以发出动作的名词，因而确定是主语，进而确定是主语对比）介宾比较： A do sth of C1 by D1 than of C2 by D2.（C1C2，D1D2对等名词）宾语比较： A do C1 than C2.(C1C2为对等名词）状语比较： A do sth than usual/everbefore/people expected(直接加状语）ETS就这几下子，原则就是清楚地指示什么跟什么比。按照这个原理，对下一种句型只有主谓，没有宾语的句子，因为没有宾语，只可能有主语比较，因而不需要重复do来确认这是一个可发出动作的主语，所以其比较形式如下：I eat faster than you.注意与下句区别I eat apple faster than you do如果写成 I eat apple faster than you 按ETS的理解，从语法上就变成我吃苹果比吃你快，成了宾语比较。逻辑上显然不通。AS族的比较大同小异，as 可单独引导比较，也可以复合成as many as, as hard as 等形式，但ETS宗旨不变，如Sand road costs twice as many to build as to manintain(类似于介宾比较）Sand road costs twice as many to build as stone road do(主语比较,）Sand road costs the govement twice as many to build as the residents.(宾语比较）ETS考过AS比较的习惯用法（不受上述限制，如下）AS poor as they are, they can not afford a car.They have 800million students, as many as have enrolled in our school.(注意以上都是用逗号隔开的句子，AS在这里的作用更类似连词，连接一个主句和一个从句）注意AS有时不表比较的如as you work hard, you will pass the exam.表原因了。There be 句型等同于一般的主谓宾俱全的句型OG89There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as there were four years ago(主语比较)There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as DVD player(宾语比较)There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as for school teachers.(介宾比较)There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as in china(介宾比较)以上的纲领代入EST的OG几乎都成立，在我这次实战中也成立，但GWD中有一题是例外的，也就是说并没有放之四海而皆准的真理，清楚，简洁，合理才是ETS的最高宗旨。依然比较，大爱比较1. whereas/while这种连词连接的比较成分不要求含义上绝对的平行，具体见prep 1-211。3. 1) compared with直接跟在逗号后面可以修饰逗号前面名词短语的核心词：Example： In the United States, while the number of foreign-born residents and their children is higher than ever, the percentage of the population they represent is not; in 1910 this group made up 35 percent of the population, compared with 20 percent in 2000.2) Compared with也可以修饰前面整个分句，compared with后面的名词与主语比较：Example:u Today, more than 43 percent of Californians under the age of eighteen are Hispanic, compared with about 35 percent a decade ago.u In the United States, Fifty-two percent of high school graduates go on to college, compared with thirty-five percent in Canada and fifteen percent in Great Britain, Japan, and West Germany.u One baby in four is now born to a mother aged thirty or older, compared with just one in six in 1975. 3) as compared to/with中as指代前面整句的核心含义：A recent review of pay scales indicates that, on average, CEOs now earn 419 times the pay of blue-collar workers, as compared to 42 times their pay, the ratio in 1980.As. As 中间加名词 as adj. a noun. as as.as之间是可以加 adj+noun的，不过好像只限于几种形式(张振邦)：as+adj.+不定冠词+单数可数+as I havent seen as old a car as this for years.as+adj.+零冠词+不可数名词+as 对应 prep2-9 (见类似题链接)as+adj.+零冠词+复数可数名词+as I dont smoke as expenesive cigarettes as those.2. as adj. (a) noun. as = (a) noun. as adj. as，其中第一个as是adv.比较结构的指代1. 比较句要求比较对象对等，逻辑含义合理，且句子没有歧义。 2. 关于指代：前面是单数名词，后面如果要指代，只能用that，如果需要表达复数意思，那么只能重复这一名词的复数形式，如economy-economies,不能随意改成those, ets视之为指代错误。(1)单数名词- that/该名词复数形式(2)复数名词- those比较结构省略（把后面的知识点看懂，说明你挺不错）1. 一道类似却不一样的题 - 未完稿：OG10-19. In addition to having more protein than wheat does, the protein in rice is higher quality than that in wheat, with more of the amino acids essential to the human diet.(A) the protein in rice is higher quality than that in(B) rice has protein of higher quality than that in(C) the protein in rice is higher in quality than it is in(D) rice protein is higher in quality than it is in (E) rice has a protein higher in quality thanIn this sentence, the initial clause modifies the nearest noun, identifying it as the thing being compared with wheat. By making protein the noun modified, choices A, C, and D illogically compare wheat with protein(是指In addition to having more protein than wheat does这个从句里面) and claim that the protein in rice has more protein than wheat does. In C and D, the comparative structure higher in quality than it is in wheat absurdly suggests that rice protein contains wheat. B, the best choice, logically compares wheat to rice by placing the noun rice immediately after the initial clause. B also uses that to refer to protein in making the comparison between the proteins of rice and wheat. Choice E needs either that in or does after wheat to make a complete and logical comparison. 从E可以看出，用than that in wheat或than does wheat都可以，但这并不能说明在其他的比较结构中也能用that in，而不是用主谓(宾)结构来与than前面的结构平行。在这个句子里：Only seven people this century have been killed by the great white shark, the man-eater of the moviesfewer than have been killed by bee stings.后面的比较成分是不可以改为less than those killed by bee stings的。具体原因如下：在rice has a protein higher in quality than that in wheat这个句子里，比较对象是protein和that（that指代的也是protein），比较的仅仅是protein（rice has不在比较成分之内，比较的是protein的属性），所以允许平行。而在Only seven people this century have been killed by the great white shark, the man-eater of the moviesfewer than 中， 不仅仅Only seven people，后面的this century have been killed by the great white shark也都在比较对象里面，所以后文不能用those killed by bee stings，而应该用平行的结构than have been killed。再比如这个句子(GWD-29-24)：According to recent studies comparing the nutritional value of meat from wild animals and meat from domesticated animals, wild animals have less total fat than (that of) livestock fed on grain and more of a kind of fat thought to be good for cardiac health. 这个句子不对。其在livestock前加上that of比较的对象是animals has less fat和that，that指代fat，而事实上比较的应该是wild animals和livestock的属性，即拥有fat的多少，所以than后面也应该用平行的句式，即主谓宾形式。正确句子为：According to recent studies comparing the nutritional value of meat from wild animals and meat from domesticated animals, wild animals have less total fat than livestock fed on grain and more of a kind of fat thought to be good for cardiac health.。要注意的一点：在此省略了相同的谓语和宾语（因为不会有wild animals have livestock的歧义，只要逻辑上基本成立，GMAT并不认为所有没有补出谓语动词的形式都是”ambiguities”的）。（原句不对的另外一个证据： more of a kind of fat 后面省略了(than)，而省略的部分应该和less total fat than后面的词句是一致的，这样才能省略逻辑上看省略的必须是livestock，而不能是that of livestock，因此less total fat than后面跟的也应该是livestock。）二时态n 注意句子中的现在完成与现在进行共存的情况，很可能被判时态矛盾n 注意：如果句中有两个事物的对比，句中出现他们是simultaneously 或者是the same time什么的，则要注意其中一句如果用完成时会与“同时”相矛盾。以下情况用现在完成时：n within/during/in/over+ the past/recent/last+时间段(注意during/in/over the last year可以用现在时也可以用完成时，取决于当时发生的事情是否延续到现在或对现在是否还有影响，而last year用过去时)ll 出现since考虑现在完成时以下情况用一般过去式：l 出现original/originally, firstl 过去明确时间l 过去段时间以下情况用一般现在时l 自然现象l 统计数据l 实验结论l 客观事实将来时：i. 条件从句/时间从句/方式从句/让步从句不能用将来时或过去将来时，常用一般现在时代替一般将来时，一般过去时代替过去将来时。（对比状从省略的几种是：转折，时间，条件。）ii. possibility that/likelihood that/expect that中,that从句后用一般将来时iii. 标准书面语中,优先使用一般将来时,主观将来时用be supposed to do,较少用be going to do,不用be to be doing/be to be done一般时与进行时过去进行时与一般过去时的对比： 过去进行时与一般过去时，两者都表示过去发生的动作,但过去进行时表示在过去某一特定的时间点或时间段正在进行的动作,而一般过去时表示在过去时间完成的动作例如: I was typing a letter last night. 昨晚我在打一封信(可能没打完) I typed some letters last night. 我昨晚打了一些信(已经打完) 4. 现在完成时时与一般现在时： yield用现在完成时与一般现在时都说得通，但是含义不一样，用have yield说明了the first trenches是过去发现的，至今仍能提供证据，而yield的话则是说明是现在发现的，所以用have yield更合理三指代Which Which指代小结by aeoluseros：以下收录官方材料中能对于which的使用，可以发现which的指代其实并没有固定死规则，不一定只指代最近的名词，跟所有代词一样，有就近指代的的倾向，但是具体修饰对象，应该根据各种线索或者逻辑含义来判断：1. 尽管A of B的结构，which没有就近修饰。561.One pervasive theory explains the introduction of breakfast cereals in the early 1900s as a result of the growing number of automobiles, which led to a decline in horse ownership and a subsequent grain glut; by persuading people to eat what had previously been horse feed, market equilibrium was restored.2. which不一定跳过插入语指代：462.Judge Lois Forers study asks why some litigants have a preferred status over others in the use of a public resource, the courts, which in theory are available to all but in fact are unequally distributed between rich and poor.3. 通过单复数判断which的所指：80.Changes in sea level result not only from changes in water temperature, which affect water density, but also from the melting of glaciers.44.The survival of coral colonies, which are composed of innumerable tiny polyps living in a symbiotic relationship with brilliantly colored algae, is being threatened, experts say, not only by pollutants such as agricultural runoff, oil slicks, and trash, but also by dropped anchors, probing divers, and global warming.173 (GWD-10-Q18) In analyzing campaign expenditures, the media have focused on the high costs and low ethics of campaign finance, but they have generally overlooked the cost of actually administering elections, which includes facilities, transport, printing, staffing, and technology.205. (GWD-9-Q17) Unlike most other mergers in the utility industry, which have been driven by the need to save money and extend companies service areas, the merger of the nations leading gas company and leading electric company is intended to create a huge network for marketing the utilities in question as states open their utility markets to competition.216. (GWD-13-1) Although she had been known as an effective legislator first in the Texas Senate and later in the United States House of Representatives, Barbara Jordan did not become a nationally recognized figure until 1974, when she participated in the hearings on the impeachment of President Richard Nixon, which were televised nationwide.4. 通过时态区别which的所指：488.Like the government that came before it, which set new records for growth, the new government has made laissez-faire capitalism its cornerstone.Stoneren关于which指代的一个观点： OG10-114: From the bark of the paper birch tree the Menomini crafted a canoe about twenty feet long and two feet wide, with small ribs and rails of cedar, which could carry four persons or eight hundred pounds of baggage yet was so light that a person could easily portage it around impeding rapids. 当which的潜在指代对象是一个独立的主语结构或独立的宾语结构时，且其指代对象的修饰成分比较简单，那么定语侧重于指代核心名词（在没有语法和逻辑问题的前提下）。These 单独指代关于these的单独指代prep1-34正确答案: Besides adding complementary flavors to many foods, hot sauces stimulate the release of endorphins in the brain, just as exercise does, and these have a pain-relieving effect like morphines. 其中these指代endorphins。OG11-115 错误答案(原句):George Sand (Aurore Lucile Dupin) was one of the first European writers to consider the rural poor to be legitimate subjects for literature and portray these with sympathy and respect in her novels.错误原因“A To be is unnecessary; these must be replaced by them”相关解释：(1) these不能作direct object(直接宾语)，34中的these是主语, 不是直接宾语(2) they指代前面出现的对象，these指代离它最近的对象，指代都要满足逻辑符合，主谓一致的要求综上，prep1-34中用了these是可以的。而本题中these是做among的直接宾语，所以不妥。替代词 one, ones, that, thoseI替代词one和ones的用法： 1one只能替代单数名词，one的复数形式ones只能替代复数名词。例如：My child doesnt like this bookShow her a more interesting one 2替代词one或ones必须带有一个限定或修饰词，它们和所替代的名词中心词所指不一定是同一对象,这是替代词one或 ones在用法上的一个重要特征。例如： I dont like this bookId like a more interesting one3. 当替代词one或ones带有后置修饰语时，它们前面总有定冠词。例如： Our new cassette is more expensive than the one we had before 4. 当替代词one或ones在形容词比较级、最高级以及某些限定词如this，that， which和序数词等之后，可以省略。例如：This book is much better than that（one） 5替代词one或ones通常不用在物主代词和名词所有格之后。如不可说my one（s），your one（s）Peters one（s）等等。one或 ones也不能用在own之后。但是，如果有了形容词，one（s）可以和物主代词及名词所有格连用。如：My cheap camera seems to be just as good as Johns expensive one 6one作替代词时，在of前面 不能 用 the one来表示所属关系和类似概念。如不可说：He put down his gun and picked up the one of Henry该用一个所有格来表示 He picked up Henrys 7当两个形容词表示对照的意思时，不能使用替代词 one。仅在其中一个形容词后加上名词即可。如：Dont praise the younger child in the presence of the elder 8替代词 one如果不带任何前置修饰语，即它的前面既没有限定词，又没有形容词时，便不是替代名词词组的中心词，而是替代整个名词词组。这时，onea单数名词。例如： A cake made of wheat costs less than one made of rice（one a cake） one的这种用法是泛指同类事物中的任何一个，相当一个不定冠词，因此它没有复数形式。要泛指复数事物，只能用some。例如： Here are a few applesWould you like some（some of them）？ 1. II替代词that和those的用法： 1.that和those通常用作指使代词，也可用作替代词。它们总是伴随着限定性的后置修饰语，分别等于the one和 the ones。例如：The houses of the rich are generally larger than those of the poor 2.that也可替代不可数名词，但是 the one则不能。例如：The resistance of a thicker wire is less than that of a thin one 以上两例中的that都不能换成the one。3.that作替代词，只能指物，不能指人。those作替代词，既可指物，也
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