资源描述
Resource Economics and Environmental Economics,资源经济与环境经济,part,contents,Three themes: Efficiency, Optimality and Sustainability Fundamental Issues in the Economic Approach to Resource and Environmental Issues Property Rights and Externalities Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems: Improper Rights and Imperfect Market Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems: Government Role and the Pursuit of Efficiency Introduction to Land Economics: Scope and Content Concepts of Land Economics Land Resources Supply and Demand The Valuation and Use of Land Farmland Preservation,Three Themes: Efficiency Optimality Sustainability,The three themes of the natural resource and environmental economics are efficiency, optimality and sustainability. It is often argued that much energy is produced or used inefficiently, and that if different techniques were employed significant resource savings could be gained with no loss in terms of final output.(通常认为很多能源在生产或使用中缺乏效率，而如果能够采用不同的技术，那么就可在最终产出不变的情况下显著地节约能源。),Resources are used in technically efficient ways,For example, suppose that electricity can be, in technically efficient ways, generated by the burning of either some heavily polluting fossil fuel. Because of a lower price for the former fuel , it is chosen by profit-maximizing electricity producers.(比如，假定能采用技术有效的方法来发电，如通过燃烧某种重污染的化石燃料。化石燃料由于价格低廉而为以追求利润最大化的发电厂所青睐。),If this happens there is an inefficiency that results from resource allocation choices even where there are no technical inefficiencies.(如果污染造成了损失， 那么即使采用了高效的技术，资源配置也会存在无效现象。) Such allocative inefficiencies will be pervasive in the use of natural and environmental resources in pure market economies. A substantial part of environmental economics is concerned with how economies might avoid inefficiencies in the allocation and use of natural and environmental resources.(在纯粹市场经济情况下，这种低效配置也会普遍存在于自然和环境资源的利用中。环境经济学的一个基本内容就是研究如何避免自然和环境资源配置和利用中效率低下的问题。),Then a resource-use choice is socially optimal if it maximizes that objective given any relevant constraints that may be operating.(如果在相关约束既定不变的情况下能够实现目标的最大化，那么资源利用的选择将达到社会最优。) That is, efficiency is a necessary condition for optimality. However , efficiency is not a sufficient condition for optimality.,This arises because there will almost always be a multiplicity of different resource allocations, but only one of those will be best from a social point of view.(原因就在于资源有效配置的方式有多种，而从社会的观点来看，只有一种是最好的。) The pursuit of optimality as usually considered in economics will not necessarily take adequate care of posterity.(追求通常在经济学里所关心的优化不一定是为子孙后代着想。),Fundamental Issues in Economic Approach to Resources and Environmental Issues,Welfare economics,It attempts to identify circumstances under which it can be claimed that one allocation of resources is better(in some sense) than another. This is the modern,and rigorous,version of Adam Smiths story about the benign influence of the invisible hand.,Environmental economics,The problem of pollution is a major concern of environtal economics. Environmental economics is also concerned with the natural environment as a source of recreational 修养的and amenity 宜人的services,which role for the environment can be analyzed using concepts and methods similar to those used in looking at pollution problems.,Ecological economics,Economics and ecology were seen as the two disciplines most directly concerned with what was seen as the central problem-sustainability. It could be said that ecology is the study of natures housekeeping,while economics is the study of human housekeeping.,Property Rights and Externalities,产权和外部影响性,The meaning of external influences 外部影响的含义,External influence is a subject of his economic activity in which the economic environment. The impact of external causes between private and social costs or private benefits and social benefits of inconsistencies between, can easily lead to market failure.(外部影响指一个经济活动的主体对他所处的经济环境的影响。外部性的影响会造成私人成本和社会成本之间，或私人收益和社会收益之间的不一致，因此容易造成市场失灵。),The impact of external direction and role of the results has two sides, can be divided into external economies and external diseconomies. Those who can bring the community and other individuals to make social and personal gains or to reduce costs as externalities external economies, it is beneficial to the individual or social externalities; that can lead to social and personal costs or lead to other benefits reduce externalities as external diseconomies, it is a personal or social disadvantage. (外部性的影响方向和作用结果具有两面性，可以分为外部经济和外部不经济。那些能为社会和其他个人带来收益或能使社会和个人降低成本支出的外部性称为外部经济，它是对个人或社会有利的外部性；那些能够引起社会和其他个人成本增加或导致收益减少的外部性称为外部不经济，它是对个人或社会不利的。),Concrete can be divided into: external economic production, consumption, external economies, the external diseconomies of production and consumption of the external diseconomies.(具体可以分为：生产的外部经济、消费的外部经济、生产的外部不经济和消费的外部不经济。),External influences and inappropriate allocation of resources,The existence of external effects caused by a serious consequence: the lack of market efficiency in resource allocation. In other words, even assuming that the economy is still perfectly competitive, but because of the existence of external influences, the whole economy of resource allocation can not be Pareto optimal state. “Invisible hand“ in the role of external influences have lost before.,外部影响与资源配置失当,外部性影响的存在造成了一个严重后果：市场对资源的配置缺乏效率。换句话说，即使假定整个经济仍然是完全竞争的，但由于存在着外部影响，整个经济的资源配置也不可能达到帕累托最优状态。“看不见的手”在外部影响面前失去了作用。,The external impacts of policies,(1) the use of tax and allowances (2) the use of the combined companys approach (3) the use of property rights approach,有关外部影响的对策,(1)使用税收与津贴 (2)使用合并企业的方法 (3)使用财产权的方法,Property rights,externalities,and environmental problems:improper rights and imperfect market.,产权，外部效应，和环境问题： 不合理的产权和不完善的市场,Improperly designed property rights systems,Other property rights regimes Private property is, of course, not the only possible way of defining entitlements to resources use. Other possibilities include state-property regimes, common-property regimes,res nullius regimes（in which no one owns or exercises control over the resources）.,私有产权，当然不是唯一可能的方式界定权利资源的使用。其他可能性包括国有产权制度，共同产权制度，雷斯纽利斯产权制度(没有人拥有或行使对资源的控制)。,设计不合理的产权制度,其他产权制度,State-property regimes exist not only in former communist countries, but also to varying degrees in virtually all countries of the world. Parks and forests,for example,are frequently owned and managed by the government in capitalist as well as int socialist nations. Problems with both efficiency and sustainability can arise in state-property regimes when the incertives of bureaucrats who implement and make the rules for resource use diverge from colletive interests.,国家知识产权制度不仅存在于前共产主义国家，但也不同程度在世界上几乎所有的国家。例如，公园和森林，经常国有及由政府管理的资本主义以及INT社会主义国家。当官僚主义者不能从集体利益出发去执行或制定资源利用的政策时，效率和可持续的问题同样可能出现在国有资源管理制度下。,Common-property resources are those that are owned in common rather than privately. Common-property regimes exhibit varying degrees of efficiency and sustainability,depending on the rules which emerge from coooective decision making. While some very successful examples of common-property regimes exist,unsuccessful examples are even more common.,共有产权制度是指资源被集体所有而不是个人。共有产权制度表现出的效率和可持续性程度因集体决策制定的规则不同而不同，在实行共有产权制度的例子中，成功者有之，失败者更不在少数。,Res unllius property resources can be exploited on a first-come,first served basis,because no individual or group has the legal power to restrict access. Open-access resources,as we shall henceforth call them,have given rise to what has become known popularly as the “tragedy of the commons”. The problems created by open-access resources can be illustrated by recalling the fate of the American bison.,在雷斯纽利斯产权制度下，因为没有任何个人或团体有权限制他人进入，因此资源的利用遵循先来先得的规则。开放获取资源，我们今后应叫他们，已普遍被称为“公地悲剧”。开放存取资源所造成的问题，可以通过回顾美洲野牛的命运证明。,Imperfect market structure,Environmental problems also occur when one of the participants in an exchange of property rights is able to exercise an inordinate amount of power over the outcome. This can occur,for example,when a product is sold by a single seller,or monopoly that violate our definition of efficiency.,不合理的市场机制。 当参与产权交易的一方可对交易的最后结果施加过分强大的影响时，环境问题也同样会产生。这可能发生，例如，当一个产品是由一个单一的卖方，或垄断销售。而垄断销售违背了我们对于效率的定义。,Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problem: Government Role and the Pursuit of Efficiency,Government failure,Market processes are not the only sources of inefficiency. Political processes are fully as culpable. Some environmental problems have arisen from a failure of political rather than economic institutions. To complete our study of the ability of institutions to allocate environmental resources, we must understand this source of inefficiency as well.,政府失灵,市场过程并不是低效率的唯一来源，政治过程也完全应该受到责备。一些环境问题的起因来自政治因素而不是经济制度的失败。要完成我们关于制度分配自然资源的能力的研究,我们必须要理解这个低效率的来源。,Government failure shares with market failure the characteristic that improper incentives are the root of the problem. Special interest groups use the political process to engage in what has become known as rent seeking. Rent seeking is the use of resources in lobbying and other activities directed at securing protective legislation.,政府失灵与市场失灵的动机不正当的特点是问题的根源。特殊利益集团使用政治手段来进行众所周知的寻租。寻租是指利用资源去游说官员或搞一些其他活动，以获得立法保护。,The pursuit of efficiency,We have seen that environmental problems arise when property rights are ill defined. When these rights are exchanged under something other than competitive conditions, and when social and private discount rates diverge. We can now use our definition efficiency to explore possible remedies, such as private negotiation, judicial remedies, and regulation by the legislative and executive branches of government.,追求效率,我们已经发现, 环境问题在产权定义不清晰时，当这些权利在其他条件下而不是在竞争条件下交换时,当社会和私人的折现率出现分歧时才会出现。我们现在可以使用我们对效率的定义去探索可能的补救措施,如私人谈判、司法补救,监管立法和政府行政部门。,Introduction to Land Economica:Scope and Content,土地经济学导论：范围和内容,Land economics deals with the economic relationships people have with others respecting land 土地经济学不研究人与人之间因为土地而引起的经济关系有科学。 it is always concerned with problems and situations in which land,its use,or its control are regarded as factors of strategic or limiting importance. 它总是和土地利用或被当作战略和重要限制因素加以控制的问题和情况有关。,Land economics:a branch of political economy 土地经济学：政治经济的分枝,Land economics is an applied branch of economics 土地经济学是应用经济学的一个分支 Land economists often step beyond the bounds of economics to operate as social science land specialists in the broader field of political economy 在更广泛的政治经济领域，土地经济学家把自己作为社会科学的土地专家而经常超越经济学范畴,Threefold framework affecting land use,Threefold framework involves,Technological and economic considerations,Institutional arrangements,3,Physical and biological factors,1,2,物理和生物因素,技术和经济方面的考虑,制度安排,三部分的关系,These three frameworks set the stages on which mans use of land takes place at any given time.Each framework has its own special impacts on landuse programs and policies ,and each can be examined separately. 这三个框架作用于人类利用土地的任何特定时间，每个框架在土地利用的计划和政策上都有自己的特定影响，并且每个都可以单独测定。 In the real world,the three frameworks are interlinked and work together.They do not operate independently of one another;nor ar they applied in a one-two-three sequence. 在现实世界中，这三个框架是相互联系、共同工作。他们既不是相互独立地发生作用，也不是按照第一、第二、第三的顺序依次发生作用。,Concepts of land Economics,Now, land economics has been tools of analysis. At this part, emphasis is given to three basic ideas.,现在，土地经济学已经成为了一个重要的分析工具，在这里，重点给出三个基本观点,1.The economic concept of land and land resources 2.A classification of land uses by type 3.The concept of land use-capacity,一、The economic concept of land and land resources,The economic of land include the question about finger of land、land use、distribution of land etc revenue Economic relations and issues of economic theory 土地经济是指土地制度、土地利用、土地收益分配等方面的经济关系及经济理论问题,二、A classification of land uses by type,3.The concept of land use-capacity,What is the land use-capacity? 什么是土地利用潜能？ How to make the land have the highest use-capacity? 怎样充分发挥土地利用潜能？,Land Resources Supply and Demand,Discussions of the adequacy of our land resource base call for frequent use of the terms supply and demand.（讨论对于我们适当的土地资源基础需要大量了解供需关系） Throughout our discussion we will follow popular usage（用法） in speaking of supply as the quantity of goods or resources available for use and of demand as the amounts of a commodity（货物） people want and are willing to buy.,When we speak of the physical supply（土地的自然供给） of land,we are concerned with the physical existence of resources. The economic supply of land involves only that portion of total physical supply that people want and use. The concept of demand is analogous to（类似于） that of suppy. As a physical concept,demand is associated with desires,needs,and wants for commodities and services.,Look at this Figure. The line of SS is supply curve. The line of DD is demanf curve. When the price occurs at P ,the quantity of product offered and the quantity buyers are willing to purchase are equal.,Under real market conditions,supply and demand fanctors tend to follow the model of the perfect market.（在只有市场条件下，供给和需求是完全市场） The amount of any given land resources supplied or demanded are usually responsive to price changes but in most situations,supply and demand reponses tend to be inelastic.（土地资源的供需量对价格一般是有反应的，但是，在大多数市场条件下，供需的价格反应是无弹性的）,The valuation and use of land,Land use and valuation was an important concern in the early decades of modern economices, beginning in the late eighteenth centuryIn a sense, the study of land economics was the beginning of the economics of natural resources . land is clearly an important input factor into many economic activities-agriculture and forestry; residential, commercial, and industrial uses; and mineral exploration. it also supports an enormous variety of ecosystems. Land ownership was also for many centuries the key to personal wealth and social power. Our focus is on the economic principles surrounding the efficient use of land as a natural resource, the determination of the value of land, an how different types of ownership of land affects land use and value.,从十八世纪晚期直到最近几十年土地使用和土地评估被特别重视，在某种意义上，土地经济的研究是研究自然资源经济学基础和开端。显然土地是投入到许多经济活动（农业和林业；住宅，商业和工业，以及矿产勘查）中的重要成分。它也是自然界中各种生态系统的基础。数百年来，土地所有权也是个人财富和社会权利的关键象征。我们重点关注土地作为自然资源之一是怎样被有效理由的经济原理、决定土地价值的经济原理以及不同的土地所有权关系是怎样影响土地的利用和土地价值的经营原理等。,The analysis of land,Land is fairly complicated to analyze because it is heterogeneous both in terms of intrinsic fertility(physical properties) and also in terms of its relative accessibility-its location .In each case, our primary concern is to show land is used efficiently and how the value of land is determined. As we will see, we can distinguish many natural resources by differences in their ownership arrangements. The different property rights will also have implications for the need for government policy. We also examine the relationship between land values and location. Land and all natural resources are heterogeneous not just because of differences in their physical characteristics, but because they differ in their location from markets using the resource, We uncover some general principles about the relationship between land use, land value. and location,对土地的分析是相当复杂的，因为从土地的内在肥力（自然特性）和相对通达性来说，土地是异质的。在每一种情况下，我们主要关心的是指土地使用效率和土地的价值。正如我们将看到，我们可以通过所有权安排来区分许多自然资源。不同的产权关系对政府而言也有不同的政策启示。我们考察土地的价值和位置的关系。所有的土地和自然资源的异质性不仅是因为不同的物理特性，同时市场对资源的应用的不同位置也会让他们变得不同。我们发现一些土地利用土地价值和位置之间的关系的原则。,Farmland Preservation,Introduction,Many states have adopted a variety of farmland presetvation measures that inhibit urban development.,Arguments: Threats to national food security; the “unproductive”characteu of housing compared with “productive”agricluture; the risk of more environmentaldegradation from prsticides if a smaller agricultural land stock is used more intensively;,There are many arguments on the other side:,Lands highest and best use ta urban boundaries can change from rural to urban;when it does,elementary models of land use show that markets will reallocate that land to its most valued use. 城市边缘区土地最优最佳利用原则将农村用地变为城市用地，随着该原则的实行，土地利用变化的基本模式显示出市场能将土地配置给最佳用途。,Food,resources,and people,The proportion of the labor force engaged in agricluture has fallen dramatically Contrary to popular impression,food production per capita has been increasing for the half-century since World War ,the only decades for which we have acceptable data. 与大众的印象相反，自第二次世界大战以来的半个世纪，也就是我们能够收集到满意的数据资料的数十年，人均占有的食物量一直在不断地增加。,Land economics,Land economics shows that free exchange within a systerm of private rights leads to dfficient resource allocation. 土地经济学认为在私有产权条件下的自由交易可导致资源的有效配置。,Clonclusions,A key institution in this success story is the market mechanism which,in turn,rests on the foundation of laws and property rights. 在这一系列成功的制度与政策中，最关键的是依赖市场机制，而市场机制有依赖与产权制度及其基本原理。,
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