4483991447理解公共政策

1. 美国宪法：the constitution of the United States 2. 社会的异质：social heterogeneity 3. 医疗保险：medicare 4. 食品券:food stamps5. 通货膨胀:inflation 6. 破窗理论: Broken Windows 7. 辍学率:dropout rates 8. 非理性犯罪:Irrational Crime9. 税收政策:tax policy 10. 个人所得税:individual income tax 11. 轻微犯罪:petty offenses 12. 关税:custom duties13. 信用基金:the “Trust Fund” 14. 代际合约:the generational compact 15. 保守：conservative 16. 先期教育：early education 17. 假释：parole 18. 配额：quotas 19. 社会保障：social security 20. 失业救济：unemployment compensation21. 货币政策：monetary policy 22. 缓刑：probation 23. 威慑：deterrence1. Public Policy : Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do . Thus public policies may regulate behavior , organize bureaucracies , distribute benefits , or extract taxes - or all these things at once . （公共政策：公共政策是政府选择做或不做什么。因此公共政策可能调节行为、组织机构、分发福利,或提取税收或者所有这些东西。） 2. Trade Quotas ：Trade quotas are prohibited from selling more than a specified number of unites in one country . （贸易配额:贸易配额是在一个国家禁止出售超过指定数量的统一。）3. Tax expenditures：Tax expenditures is a term meant to identify tax revenues that are lost to the federal government because of exemption , deductions , and special treatments in tax laws . （税收损耗：税收损耗是指为了确定联邦政府的税收收入免税，扣除、税收法律和特殊治疗。）4. Progressive tax：Taxes that require high-income groups to pay a larger percentage of their incomes in taxes than low-income groups are said to be progressive tax . （累进税：税率要求高收入群体投入比低收入群体的税收更大比例的收入，称为累进税。）5. Regressive tax : Taxes that take a larger share of the income of low-income groups are called Regressive tax .（递减税：税率更大份额的低收入群体的收入称为递减税。）6. Proportional tax : Taxes that require all income groups to pay the same percentage of their income in taxes are said to be proportional tax . （比例税：税率要求所有收入群体支付相同的税收收入的百分比比例税。）7. Public good :Goods and services that must be supplied to everyone if they are supplied to anyone , national defense is the most common example .（公益：商品和服务如果可以提供给任何人那么他们必须提供给每个人,国防就是最常见的例子。）8. Institutional Model （制度主义）Describe specific institutions and certain aspects of those institutions. - structures, organization, duties, and functions. Also analyze the effect these aspects have on policy outputs9. Process Model （过程模型）Process model follows these steps: - identify problem, set agenda, formulate policy, implementation, and evaluation - Shows how decisions are made, and how they should be made - Helps to understand activities involved in policy-making 10. Group Theory （团体理论）Interaction among groups is the central aspect of politics - People come together through common interests - Public policy is the equilibrium reached in a group struggle, which is political activity - Parties are viewed as coalitions of groups 11. Elite Theory （精英理论）- People are apathetic and ill-informed, therefore elite shapes mass opinion - Implies that public policy does not truly reflect the wants to the people as much as the elites - Elitism views masses as passive and easily manipulated 12. Rational Model （理性主义）- “Achieves maximum social gain - Policy should never have costs that exceed gains - Must know societies values, all alternatives, and the consequences of the alternatives 13. Incremental Model （渐进主义）- Views public policy as a continuation of past government activities with only small modifications - Conservative because it considers existing policy as a base, and new programs are ignored - Believe that policies that are in effect has been proven, why alter what has proven effective 14. Game Theory Model （博弈理论）- Study of rational decisions where one choice depends on the outcome of another choice - An abstract and deductive model of policy making - More an analytic tool than a practical guide 15. Public Choice Model （公共选择理论）- The economic study of non-market decision making - Recognizes government must perform certain functions that market is unable to handle - Seen in elections, candidates are more concerned with winning than advancing principles3、 回答问题（41040）1.Who are the poor in America? （在美国穷人是谁）Poverty occurs in many kinds of families and all races and ethnic groups .However ,some groups experience poverty in proportions greater than the national average . Family Structure . Poverty is most common among female -headed families . Race . Blacks experience poverty in much greater proportions than whites . Age . The age in the United States experience less poverty than the nonaged . Temporary versus Persistent Poverty . Most poverty is temporary , and most welfare dependency is relatively brief , lasting less than 2 years .2. The Police Process. （政策形成的过程） Problem Identification . The identification of policy problems through demand from individuals and groups for government action . Agenda setting .Focusing the attention of the mass media and public officials on specific public problems to decide what will be decided . Policy Formulation . The development of policy proposals by interest groups , White House staff congressional committees , and think tanks . Policy Legitimation . The selection and enactment of policies through actions by Congress , the president , and the courts . Policy Implementation . The implementation of policies through government bureaucracies , public expenditures , regulations , and other activities of executive agencies . Policy Evaluation . The evaluation of policies by government agencies themselves , outside consultants , the media , and the general public .3. The “Uruguay Round”. （乌拉圭回合） The “Uruguay Round”in 1993 resulted in the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) . The WTO was given power to adjudicate trading disputes among countries and monitor and enforce the trade agreements under GATT . Countries bring disputes to the WTO if they think their rights under the agreements are being infringed . Judgments by specially appointed independent experts are based on their interpretations of the agreements . 4. Current Immigration Policy. （美国现行的移民政策） Legal immigrants (also “lawful permanent residents ” or “Permanent residents aliens ”) . These immigrants are admitted to the United States under a ceiling of 675000 per year , with some admitted on the basis of job skills but most coming as family members of persons legally residing in the United States .Legal immigrants may work in the United States and apply for citizenship after five years of countinuous residence . Refugees and asylees . These are persons admitted to the United States because of “ a well-found fear of persecution because of race , religion , nationality , political opinion , or membership in a social group . ” They may work in the United States an are eligible for all federal assistance programs . Parolees ( or persons enjoying “temporary protected status ” ) . These are persons admitted to the United States for humanitarian or medical reasons or whose countries are faced with natural or man-made disasters . Legalized aliens (also called “ amnesty aliens ” ). These formerly illegal aliens were given legal status ( amnesty ) under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 . To qualify , they must show some evidence of having resided in the United States since 1982 . They may work in the United States and are eligible for all federal assistance programs after five years . Non-immigrants ( also “ nonresident legal aliens ” ). Over 32 million people are awarded visas to enter the United States for pleasure and business . Time limits are placed on these visas , usually by stamping a passport . Additionally , students , temporary workers and trainees , transient aliens , and foreign officials are eligible for temporary visas .5. The Brady Law. （布莱迪法案） The federal Brady Law of1993 requires a five-day waiting period for the purchase of a handgun . The national law is named for James S. Brady , former press secretary to President Ronald Reagan , who was severely wounded in the 1981 attempted assassination of the president . Brady and his wife , Sarah , championed the bill for many years before its adoption . Under the laws provisions . Handgun dealers must send police agencies a form completed by the buyer ( which is already required in most status ); police agencies have five days to make certain the purchaser is not a convicted felon . Fugitive , drug addict , or mentally ill person . Supporters believe the law is a modest step in keeping handguns from dangerous people . Opponents , including the National Rifle Association lobby , believe that the law is an empty political gesture at fighting crime that erodes the Second Amendment right to bear arms .6. Classical Theory. （古典经济理论） Classical economists generally view a market economy as a self-adjusting mechanism that will achieve an equilibrium of full employment , maximum productivity , and stable prices if left alone by the government . The price mechanism will adjust the decisions of millions of Americans to bring into balance the supply and demand of goods and labor . Regarding recessions , if workers are temporarily unemployed because the supply for workers exceeds the demands , wages ( the price of labor )will fall ;eventually it will again become profitable for businesses to have more workers at lower wages and thus end unemployment . Similarly , if the demand for goods ( automobiles , houses , clothing , kitchenware , and so forth ) falls , business inventories will rise and businesspeople will reduce price ( often through rebates , sales , etc ) until demand picks up again . Regarding inflation , general increases in prices will reduce demand and automatically bring it back into line with supply unless the government interferes . In short , classical economic theory relies on the free movement of prices to counter both recession and inflation . 7. The Federal Tax System. （税收政策）The federal government derives its revenues from a variety of sources.Individual Income Taxes .Today the personal tax is the federal governments largest single course of revenue . Personal income is taxes at six separate rates10,15,25,28,33, and 35 percent . These rates apply progressively to levels of income , or “brackets,” that are indexed annually to reflect inflation . The federal income tax is automatically deducted from the paychecks of all employees expect farm and domestic workers . This withholding system is the backbone of the income tax . Social Security Taxes . The second-largest source of federal revenue is social insurance payroll taxes , which now provide 37percent of the federal governments income . The taxes collected under Social Security are earmarked for the account of each taxpayer . Today a majority of taxpayers pay more in Social Security taxes than in income taxes .Corporate Income Taxes . The corporate income taxes provides only about 10 percent of the federal governments total income . The corporate income taxes is notorious for its loopholes . Estate and Gift Taxes . Taxes on property left to heirs is one of the oldest forms of taxation in the world . As the large baby-boom generation of voters reaches the age when their parents are passing away and leaving them estates , political pressure is building against the estates tax .Excise Taxes and Custom Duties . Federal exercise taxes on liquor , tobacco ,gasoline ,telephones, air travel , and other so-called luxury items account for only 4 percent of total federal revenue . Customs taxes on imports provide another 1 percent of total federal revenue .8. Why Are The Poor Poor? （穷人为什么穷）Inasmuch as policymakers cannot even agree on the definition of poverty , it comes as no surprise that they cannot agree on its causes . Low Productivity . Many economists explain poverty in terms of human capital theory . The poor are poor because their economic productivity is low . They do not have the human capitalthe knowledge , skills , training , work habits , abilitiesto sell to employers in a free market . Absence from the labor force is the largest single source of poverty . Economic Stagnation . Economists also recognize that some poverty that some poverty results from inadequate aggregate demand . Serious recessions with increases in unemployment raise the proportion of the population living below the poverty line . According to this view , the most effective antipoverty policy is to assure continued economic growth and employment opportunity . Historically , the greatest reductions in poverty have occurred during prosperous times .Discrimination . Discrimination plays a role in poverty that is largely unaccounted for by economic theory . We have already observed that blacks are more likely to experience poverty than whites . It is true that some of the income differences between blacks and whites are a product of educational differences . However blacks earn less than whites even at the same educational level . If the free market operated without interference by discrimination , we would expect little or no difference in income between blacks and whites with the same education . Culture of Poverty . Yet another explanation focuses on a “ culture of poverty ”. According to this notion , poverty is a “ way of life ”, which is learned by the poor . The culture of the poverty involves not just a low income but also indifference , alienation , apathy , and irresponsibility . This culture fosters a lack of self-discipline to work hard , to plan and save for the culture , and to get ahead.Disintegrating Family Structure . Poverty is closely associated with family structure . As we have seen poverty is greatest among female-headed households and least among husband-wife households . It may be fashionable in some circles to view husband-wife families as traditional or even antiquated and to redefine family as any household with more than one person . But no worse advice could be given to the poor .四、分析图（11212）1. Game Theory Model. （博弈模型） The game theorist himself or herself supplies the numerical values to the payoffs . If Driver A chooses to stay on course and , the result might be scored as-10 for both players , who wreck their cars . But if chooses to stay on course and Driver B veers , then Driver A might get +5 ( “courage” ) and Driver B -5 ( “dishonor” ). If Driver A veers but Driver B stays on course , the results would be reversed . If both veers , each is dishonored slightly (-1), but not as much as when one or the other stayed on course . 2. The Laffer Curve. （拉弗曲线）The “Laffer Curve” argue that when tax rates become too high , federal revenue actually declines because economic activity is discouraged . If the government imposed a zero tax rate , it would receive no revenue ( point A ). Initially , government revenues rise with increases in the tax rate . However , when tax rates become too high ( beyond point C ), they discourage workers and businesses from producing and investing . When this discouragement occurs , the economy declines and government revenues fall . Indeed , if the government imposed a 100 percent tax rate ( point D , if the government confiscated everything anyone produced ), everyone would quit working and government revenues would fall to zero ( point B ).Laffer does not claim to know exactly what the optimum rate of taxation should be , but he ( and the Reagan administration ) clearly believed that the United States had been in the “ prohibitive range ” throughout the 1970s .五、写作题（12020）