(精品)linguistics5 (2)

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,Meaning,Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.,E.g. Plato & Aristotle.,meaning,meaning,What does cornea,mean,?,The transparent, convex,（突的）, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat,（纤维膜）,of the eyeball that covers the iris,（虹膜）,and the pupil,（瞳孔）,and is continuous with the sclera,（巩膜）,.,Health,means,everything.,A green light,means,to go.,Pragmatics:,The meaning of utterances,Semantics,Semantics is generally considered to be the study,of meaning in language.,Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.,Meaning,G. Leech in a moderate tone recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics , first published in 1974:,1. conceptual meaning,2. connotative meaning,3. social meaning,4. affective meaning,5. reflected meaning,6. collocative meaning,7. thematic meaning,Associative Meaning,1. conceptual meaning:,refers to logical, cognitive, or denotative content,.,c,oncerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes,or refers to,.,2. connotative meaning:,what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.,u,nstable:,they vary considerably according to culture,historical period, and the experience of the individual.,S,t,e,p,m,o,t,h,e,r,mother,3. social meaning:,what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.,Dialect:,the language of a geographical region or of a social class.,Time:,the language of the 18th c., etc.,Province,(领域),:,language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.,Status:,polite, colloquial, slang, etc.,Modality,（形态，形式）,:,language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.,Singularity,（风格、个人特征）,:,the style of Dickens, etc.,domicile:,very formal, official,residence:,formal,abode:,poetic,home:,general,steed:,poetic,horse:,general,nag:,slang,gee-gee:,baby language,4.,affective meaning:,what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.,(,c,ommendatory, neutral,d,erogatory,),-,Youre a,vicious tyrant,and a,villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!,nigger,Chinaman,Commendatory,tough-minded,resolute, firm,shrewd,childlike,man of usual talent,portly, stout, solid,plump,slender, slim,Derogatory,ruthless,obstinate,sly, crafty,childish,freak,fleshy, fat, tubby,lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy,5. reflected meaning:,what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.,mouse,Many taboo terms are result of this.,6. collocative meaning:,what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.,take after（长得像）/back（收回，回忆起）/on（承担）/out（带出，清除）/to（喜欢，开始从事）,make away with (摧毁)/make for (走向)/make out (认出、断言)/make up (补充、弥补、组成),7. thematic meaning:,what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.,Mrs,.,Bessie Smith donated the first prize.,The first prize was donated by Mrs,.,Bessie Smith.,They stopped at the end of the corridor.,At the end of the corridor, they stopped.,I beat you.,You beat me.,the referential theory,The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.,(to explain the meaning of a word by pointing to,the thing it refers to),In the case of,proper nouns,and,definite noun phrases, this is especially true. However, there are also problems with this theory.,desk,ghost,something abstract,Semantic triangle,Semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in their The Meaning of Meaning.,They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is,not direct,. It is mediated by,concept,.,semantic triangle,concept / thought,word /symbol,thing / referent,airplane,According to this theory, there is,no direct link between symbol and referent,(between language and the world).,The link is via,thought,or reference, the concepts of our minds.,This theory raises a new problem. For example, what is precisely the link between the symbol and concept?,Weak points ?,Some scholars have suggested that,the link is simply a,psychological one,-when we think of a name, we think,of a concept.,The problem is that people dont actually try to see the image of something in their minds eye every time they utter a word.,componential analysis,semantic properties,The lexicon is the part of the grammar that contains the knowledge speakers have about individual words and morphemes, including semantic properties.,Words that share a semantic property are said to be in a semantic class, for example, the semantic class of “female” words.,One way of representing semantic properties is through the use of semantic features.,Semantic features are a formal of notational device for expressing the presence or absence of semantic properties by pluses and minuses.,woman,+female +human -young,father,+male +human +parent,girl,+female +human +young,mare,+female -human -young,+equine,There are some,difficulties,in the approach to analyze the meaning of a word in terms of semantic components.,Problems,One difficulty is that many words are,polysemous,. They have more than one meaning, consequently they will have different sets of semantic components.,A case in point is the word “man”, which is usually said to have a component male. But it may also be used in a generic sense as in Man is mortal, which applies to both sexes.,Secondly, some semantic components are seen as,binary taxonomies,. Male and female is one, and adult and young is another. But as in the discussion of antonymy, the opposition between male and female is different from that between adult and young. The former is,absolute,while the latter is,relative,.,Thirdly, the examples we have seen are only concerned with,the neatly organized parts,of the vocabulary. There may be,words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain,.,The,meaning,of a word is its use in the language.,-,Ludwig Wittgenstein,Meaning,is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.,Reference:,how language,refers,to this external world,.,Sense:,the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language,.,mea,ning, reference, sense,Se,nse,relationships,Words are in different sense relations with each other. There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely,sameness relation, oppositeness relation,and,inclusiveness relation,.,synonymy,synonymy is the technical name,for the sameness relation in meaning.,English is said to be rich in synonyms. Its vocabulary has two main sources: Anglo-Saxon and Latin.,e.g. buy and purchase,world and universe,brotherly and fraternal.,She forgot her handbag. /She forgot her purse.,He is sitting on the sofa. /He is sitting on the couch.,But total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all,context dependent,. They all differ one way or another.,For example,They may differ in,style,: buy and purchase.,They may also differ in,connotations,.,“I am thrifty, you are economical. And he is,stingy”.,Thirdly, there are,dialectal differences,.,“autumn” is British while “fall” is American.,particular, special, exceptional, peculiar,His performance exemplified,exceptional,talent.,He joined the team with a,special,secret mission.,Descriptive details are always related to,particular,events, taking place at a,particular,time and a,particular,place.,Due to some unknown reason, our teacher sounds a bit,peculiar,.,particular,special,exceptional,peculiar,不同一般,+,+,+,+,有某种特点,+,+,+,+,强调优点,+,+,含褒义,+,含贬义,+,由于不知情引起的困惑,+,antonymy,Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation.,There are three main sub-types :,gradable antonymy,complementary antonymy,converse antonymy.,Gradable antonymy,First, they are gradable.,Second, antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms.,Third, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.,E.g. good: bad, long: short, big: small,good - bad,long - short,big - small,Can be modified by adverbs of degree like,very,.,Can have,comparative,forms.,Can be asked with,how,.,Complementary antonymy,In contrast to the first type, the members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely.,Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.,To some extent, this difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary and the contradictory.,Secondly, the norm in this type is absolute. It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to. The same norm is used for all the things it is applicable to.,Thirdly, there is no cover term for the two members of a pair. As a matter of fact, no adjective in this type can be modified by how. This is related to the fact that they are not modifiable by words like very.,antonyms like alive/dead, male/female, present/absent, innocent /guilty, are of this type.,Converse antonymy/ relational opposites,do not constitute a positive-negative opposition.,show the reversal of a relationship,same relationship seen from two different angles. (reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations, or relational opposites),always two entities involved,One presupposes the other.,buy/sell,lend/borrow,give/receive,parent/child,husband/wife,host/guest,employer/employee,teacher/students,above: below.,Hyponymy,Hyponymy is a matter of class membership.,The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate,(,上义词,), and the lower terms, the members, hyponyms,（下义词,).,. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.,(inclusiveness relation),Hyponymy,superordinate: color;,hyponyms: red, white, black, green, purple, blue ,superordinate: animal;,hyponyms: lion, tiger, leopard, lynx,（猞猁）,superordinates: musical instruments;,hyponyms: guitar, horn, clarinet,（黑管）,marimba,(,木琴）, piano, trumpet,（喇叭）,violin.,4.,sentence meaning,I beat you.,You beat me.,sentence,meaning,The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it.,But it is also obvious that the former is not simply the sum total of the latter.,Word order,Syntactic structure,An Integrated Theory,The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on,the meanings of the constituent words,and,the way they are combined,is usually known as the principle of,compositionality,(,组合性原则,),.,The basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts:,a dictionary,: provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.,a set of projection rules,: are responsible for combining the meaning of words together.,Noncompositional meaning,Idioms:,cannot be built up as the sum of its parts. Idioms are phrases derived by metaphor and other types of semantic extension.,get up on the wrong side of the bed,in the doghouse,（失宠、受冷遇）,green with envy,face the music,kick the bucket,A. Because she got mad, that hen kicked a bucket.,B. A cartoon painter kick,ed,a bucket of paint,accidently,.,C. the process of dying,sentence meaning,a.,the “truth” of sentences,The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances” are called the truth conditions of sentence. The truth conditions of a declarative sentence are the same as the sense of the sentence.,a. the “truth” of sentences,E.g.,The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776.,The Declaration of Independence,was signed in 1976.,b. Sense relations between sentences,Paraphrase,Entailment,Contradiction,Presupposition,Paraphrase,Definition:,Two sentences are paraphrases if they have the same truth conditions.,E.g.,The horse threw the rider.,The rider was thrown by the horse.,It is easy to play sonatas on this piano.,This piano is easy to play sonatas on.,On this piano it is easy to play sonatas.,Sonatas are easy to play on this piano.,Booth assassinated Lincoln.,It is Booth who assassinated Lincoln.,The students gave money to the beggar.,The students gave the beggar money.,E,ntailment,蕴含,Sometimes knowing the truth of one sentence entails or necessarily implies the truth of another sentence.,Corday assassinated Marat.,Marat is dead.,It is logically impossible for the former to be true and the latter false. Thus the sentence “Corday assassinated Marat” entails the sentence “Marat is dead”.,“Mortimer is a bachelor” entails “Mortimer is male”, and so on.,contradiction,矛盾,Contradiction is negative entailment, that is, where the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.,E.g.,Elizabeth II is Queen of England.,Elizabeth II is a man.,Scott is a baby.,Scott is an adult.,presupposition,预设,In the branch of linguistics known as,pragmatics, a presupposition (or ps) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.,Examples:,Do you want to do it again?,Presupposition: that you have done it already, at least once.,Jane no longer writes fiction.,Presupposition: that Jane once wrote fiction.,I came to realize that John is a crook.,Presupposition,?,Thank you!,