科技英语翻译技巧

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,*,词义的选择和引申,正确选择词义是保证译文质量的中心问题。英汉两种语言在词义方面存在着很大的差异，一般来说，英语词义比较灵活多变，词的涵义范围比较宽，词义对上下文的依赖性比较大。汉语词义比较严谨精确，词语的涵义范围比较窄，词义的伸缩性和对上下文的依赖性比较小。而且英语中一词多用、一词多义、一词多类的现象相当普遍 。英汉词义方面的这些差异，必然给翻译带来一定的困难。,1,英汉两种语言都有一词多义的现象，但总的来说，在现代汉语中，同一个词的词义在不同的上下文中的差别比较小，一词多义的现象不如英语那么普遍。,例如,wet,这个词，在不同的上下文中具有不同的意义。,He was wet to the skin.,他全身都湿透了。,一、词义的选择,2,Wet Paint.,油漆未干。,A wet country,允许贩酒的国家,all wet,完全弄错了,wet behind the ears,乳臭末干的；没见过世面的,在英译汉中，对英语词义的辨析，尤其对多义词词义的选择和确定，是一个艰苦的思维过程。选择词义一般可以三个方面着手：,3,英语有些词在作为不同词类有不同的意义，如,back,作副词：,作形容词：,回来,过期的,作名词：,作动词：,背部,支持,所以选择词义时，首先要判明一个词在原句中属哪个词类，再进一步确定词义，现以,like,为例。,4,Like,charges repel, unlike charges attract.,同性电荷相斥，异性电荷相吸。,In the sunbeam passing through the window there are fine grains of dust shining,like,gold.,adj，“,相同的”,在射入窗内的阳光里，细微的尘埃象金子一般在闪闪发亮。,Prep, “,象”,It is the atoms that make up iron, water,oxygen and the,like,.,正是原子构成了铁、水、氧等类物质。,Noun, “,相同之物”,5,He,likes,making experiments in chemistry.,他喜欢做化学实验。,Verb, “,喜欢”,Waves in water move,like,the waveform moves along a rope.,波在水中移动象波形沿着绳子移动一样。,Conj,“象，如,”,一个名词有多种意义时，往往是分别适用于不同的学科和专业，因此，对多义词要注意,6,辨认词的一般意义和专业意义，以及它们在各种不同学科里的不同译法。,例如，,eye,一般作“眼睛”解，但在不同专业里却有不同的意义，如,inspection eye,，,observers eye television eye,检查,孔,观测,镜,(工业)电视,摄像机,再如：,base,在下列各句中具有不同的意义。,The lathe should be set on a firm,base,.,车床应安装在坚实的,底座,上。,7,As we all know, a,base,reacts with an acid to form a salt.,众所周知，,碱,与酸起反应生成盐,。,A transistor has three electrodes, the emitter,the,base,and the collector.,晶体管有三个电极，即发射极、,基极,和集电极。,Line AB is the,base,of the triangle ABC.,AB,线是三角形,ABC,的,底边,。,Mathematics is the,base,of all other sciences, and arithmetic, the science of numbers, is the,base,of mathematics.,数学是所有其它科学的,基础,，而算术，即数的科学，则是数学的,基础,。,8,二、词的引申,所谓词的引申，指的是在一个词所具有的基本词义的基础上，进一步加以引申，选择比较恰当的汉语词来表达，使原文的思想表现得更加准确，译文更加顺畅。如,heavy,的基本词义是“重”，,heavy current,heavy traffic,heavy industry,强电流,交通拥挤,重工业,heavy rain,大雨,heavy frog,浓雾,9,The study of the brain is one of the,last frontiers,of human knowledge.,对大脑的研究是人类知识的,最新领域,之一,。(不译“最后的边疆”),The beauty of lasers is that they can do machining without ever physically touching the material.,激光的,妙处,就在于它能进行机械加工而不必实际接触加工材料。,(不译“美丽”),There are three steps which must be taken before we,graduate from,the integrated circuit technology.,我们要,完全掌握,集成电路，还必须经过三个阶段。,(不译“毕业于”),10,练习：,1.,This is the whole,round,of knowledge.,2.,In this case, a magnetic field will be built up,round,the coil.,3.,He is a valuable,acquisition,to the team.,4.,The shortest distance,between raw material and a finished part is casting.,5.,If iron is kept moist, rusting is rapid, which might lead us to think that water was the,influence,causing corrosion.,11,词量的增减,英汉两种语言由于语法结构的差异，修辞手段的不同，在翻译过程中往往出现词量增补或减少的现象，例如让步状语从句，原因状语从句需要增加关联词，另外，冠词是汉语中没有的词类，在不少情况下，英译汉时予以省略不译。因此，词量增减是翻译中觉必不可少的翻译技巧之一。,12,一、词量增加,The best conductor has the least resistance and,the poorest the greatest.,最好的导体电阻最小，最差的导体电阻最大。,=the poorest conductor has,the greatest resistance.,13,If A is equal to D, A plus B equals D plus B.,如果,A=D，,则,A+B=D+B。,Note that the,words,“velocity” and “speed” require explanation.,请注意，“速度”和“速率”这,两个,词需要解释。,The first electronic,computers,used vacuum tubes and other components.,第一,批,电子计算机使用真空管和其他元件。,14,These principles will be illustrated by the following,transition.,这些原理将由下列演变,过程,来说明。,The temperature needed for this,processing,is lower than that needed to melt the metal.,这种加工,方法,所需的温度要低于熔化该金属的温度。,15,5.逻辑加词，顺理成章,Air pressure decreases with,altitude,.,气压随,海拔,高度的增加而下降。,According to,scientists, it takes nature 500,years,to create an inch of topsoil.,根据科学家们,的看法,，自然界要用500年,的时间,才能创造一英寸的表层土壤。,冠词，介词，代词，连词,动词等词的省译。,人称、物主、反身、关系代词,系动词，助动词,16,练习：,1.The changes in matter which we see all around us are of two types,physical and chemical,.,2.,A designer must have a good foundation in,statics, kinematics, dynamics and strength of materials,.,3.From,the evaporation,of water people know,that,liquids can turn into gases under certain conditions.,4.,In the,absence of friction, belts would not,be,capable of conveying power from one machine to,another,.,5.Different metals differ in,their,conductivity.,17,词性的转换,英、汉两种语言在语言结构与表达形式方面各有其自身的特点。因此，要使译文既忠实于愿意又顺畅可读，就不能局限于逐词对等，必须采用适当的词性转换、句子成分转换，乃至句型转换的翻译技巧。如，科技英语中大量使用名词化结构，而汉语中动词用得多。再如汉语中没有冠词、关系代词、关系副词、分词、不定式、动名词等，翻译时上述词就要予以转换处理,包括词性转换和句子成分的转换,。,首先看词性转换的各种情况。,18,一、转换成汉语动词,A change of state from a solid to a liquid form requires heat energy.,从固态变为液态需要热能。,Light from the sun is a mixture of light of many different colors.,太阳光是由许多不同颜色的光混合成的,。,19,2.英语的介词使用得特别多，在很多的情况下，尤其是构成状语时，往往译成汉语的动词。,A force is needed to move an object against inertia.,为使物体克服惯性而运动，就需要一个力。,Modern industry would be out of the question without iron and steel.,没有钢铁，就谈不上现代化工业。,When the switch is off, the circuit is open and electricity doesnt go through.,当开关断开时，电路就形成开路，电流不能通过。,In this case the temperature in the furnace is up.,在这种情况下，炉温就升高。,20,1.,某些英语动词的概念难以直接用汉语的动词表达，翻译时可转换成名词。,二、转换成汉语名词,Such materials are characterized by good insulation and high resistance to wear.,这些材料的特点是：绝缘性好，耐磨性好。,If a box weighs 10 kilograms, an upward force of 10 kilograms must be exerted to lift it.,假定箱子的重量是10公斤，就必须施加10公斤向上的力才能把它举起来。,21,2.,某些表示事物特征的形容词作表语时可转译成名词，其后往往加上“性”、“度”、等。,This workpiece is not more elastic than that one.,这个工件不比那个工件更有弹性。,Glass is much more soluble than quartz.,玻璃的可溶性比石英大得多。,3.,英语中大量使用代词，汉语则不然；为了使概念清楚，符合汉语的表达习惯，可将代词译成所代替的名词,。,The friction of the bearings causes them and the lubricant which is circulating through them to warm up.,轴承的摩擦使轴承和流通于轴承间的润滑油发热。,Radio waves are similar to light waves except their wave-length is much greater.,无线电波与光波相似，但无线电波的波长要长得多。,22,4.,某些副词转译成名词使译文更加顺畅,Electromagnetic waves travel as fast as light.,电磁波传播的速度和光一样,。,The instrument is used to determine how fully the batteries are charged.,这种仪表用来确定电瓶充电的程度。,三、转换成形容词,四、转换成副词,23,一、主语转换成宾语,在翻译过程中，虽然有时可以使译文的主语、谓语、宾语等句子成分保持与原文对应，但由于英、汉两种语言思维方式与表达习惯的不同，在大多数情况下并无一对一的对应现象，为了使译文通顺达意，必须运用转换翻译技巧，包括词性转换和句子成分的转换。它是英汉互译时必不可的一种技巧。,句子成分的转换,常用于翻译被动句,As the match burns,heat and light,are given off.,火柴燃烧时发出光和热。,例：,24,Much progress,has been made in electrical engineering in less than a century.,不到一个世纪，电气工程就取得了很大的进步。,二、主语转换成谓语,用于以,care,need,attention,emphasis, improvement,等名词及名词化结构作主语时的情况。,例：,There is a,need,for improvement in our experimental work.,我们的实验工作需要改进。,25,The rotation,of the earth on its own axis causes the change from day to night.,地球绕轴,自转,，引起昼夜的变化。,三、宾语转换成主语,在,to have a length of ,to have a height of , to have a density of , to have a voltage of ,结构中，往往将“长度”“高度”等作主语。,例：,This sort of stone has,a,relative density,of 2.7.,这种石头的,相对密度,是2.7。,26,An electron has about 1/1840,the mass,of the proton.,电子的,质量,大约是质子的1/1840。,四、谓语转换成主语,某些英语动词如,act,behave,feature,characterize, relate, load,conduct,等在汉语中往往都要转译成名词才符合汉语的表达习惯，因此，作为句子成分也就相应地转换成主语。,例：,A highly developed physical science,is characterized,by,an extensive use of mathematics.,一门高度发展的自然科学的,特点,是广泛地应用数学。,27,Matter is,anything,that occupies space and has weight.,比较：,1.物质是占有空间并具有重量的一切东西。,2.,凡,占有空间并具有重量,的,西都是物质。,进行这种转换往往是为了突出定语所表达的内容。,五、定语转换成谓语或表语,Many,factors enter into equipment reliability.,涉及设备可靠性的因素,很多。,28,The earth was formed from,the same,kind of materials that makes up the sun.,构成地球的物质与构成太阳的物质是,相同的,。,由于被修饰词的词性改变，起修饰作用的定语与状语常常互相转换。,The modern world is experiencing,rapid,development of science and technology.,当今世界科学技术正在,迅速,发展。,六、定语与状语互相转换,29,The electronic computer is,chiefly,characterized by its accurate and rapid computations.,电子计算机的,主要,特点是计算准确而迅速。,七、其它,1.,主动语态句子的某些状语可转译成主语。,Various substances differ widely,in their magnetic characteristics.,不同物质的,磁性,大不相同。,30,2.there be,句型中修饰主语的,of,短语可从定语转换成主语。,There are three main laws of,mechanics,or three laws of Newton.,力学,有三大定律，即牛顿三定律。,3.to have aof ,句型中的主语可转换成定语。,Water,has a variable coefficient of expansion.,水的,膨胀系数是可变的。,31,练习：,1.The earth is,shaped,like a ball.,2.,This steam engine is only about 15 percent,efficient,.,3.A,continuous increase,in the temperature of a gas confined in a container will lead to a,continuous increase,in the internal pressure within the gas.,4.The oil tank has a capacity of 50 litres,.,5.,This machine tool is good,in quality,and small,in size.,6.In any machine, input work equals output work plus work done against friction.,7.,Numerous,materials are available to todays designers,.,8.For nearly all substances the density gets smaller as the temperature is raised.,32,被动语态的译法,英语和汉语都有被动语态，但两种文字对被动语语态的运用却不尽相同。同一个意思，英语习惯用被动语态表达，汉语却往往要用主动语态。英译汉时，必须注意被动语态的译法，不要过分拘泥于原文的被动结构，而要根据汉语的习惯，做灵活多样的处理。,33,当英语被动句中的主语为无生命的名词，又不出现由介词,by,引导的行为主体时，往往可译成汉语的主动句，原句的主语在译文中仍为主语。,一、译成汉语的主动句,1.原主语仍译为主语(省略被字的被动句),Sand casting is used to make large parts.,砂型铸造用于制造大型零件。,Materials may be grouped in several ways.,材料可以按几种方式分类。,34,2.,把原主语译成宾语，而把行为主体或相当于行为主体的介词宾语译成主语,Friction can be reduced and the life of the machine prolonged by lubrication.,润滑能减少摩擦，延长机器寿命。,A new kind of magnifying glass is being made in that factory.,那个工厂正在制造一种新的放大镜。,35,3.增译逻辑主语：,原句中未包含动作的发出者，译成主动句时可从逻辑主语出发，适当增添不确定主语，如“人们”、“大家”、“我们”等,。,Salt,is known,to have a very strong corroding effect on metals.,大家知道,，盐对金属有很强的腐蚀作用。,Magnesium,is found,to be the best material for making flash light.,人们发现,，镁是制造闪光灯的最好材料。,36,汉语句的无主句与英语相比是一种独特的句型。英语的许多被动句不需要或无法讲出动作的发出者，因此往往可译成汉语的无主句，而把原句中的主语译成宾语。,Attention has been paid to,the new measures to prevent corrosion.,已经注意到,采取新的防腐措施。,In the watch making industry, the tradition of high precision engineering,must be kept,.,在钟表制造业中，,必须保持,高精度工艺的传统。,二、译成汉语的无主句,37,三、译成汉语的判断句,凡是着重描述事物的过程、性质和状态的英语被动句，与系表结构相近，往往可译成“是的结构。,The volume is not measured in square millimeters. It is measured in cubic millimeters.,体积不是以平方毫米计量的。它是以立方毫米计量的。,The first explosive in the world was made in China.,世界上最早的炸药是在中国制造的。,38,四、译成汉语的被动句,英语的某些着重被动动作的被动句，汉译时要译成被动句，以突出其被动意义。但汉语表达被动语态的方式很多，除了“被”字外，还时常使用“由”，“受”，“加以”，“为”，“挨” 等。,This kind of steel is not corroded by air and water.,Other processes will be discussed briefly.,其他方法将简单地加以讨论。,这种钢不会被空气和水腐蚀。,39,1.This cylindrical vessel is designed and made by ourselves.,2.,Full use must be made of all natural resources in our country.,3.Laser technology may be taken as one of the most important advances achieved by scientists in recent years.,4.,A synthetic material equal to that metal in strength has been created by our research center,.,5.Electricity itself has been known to man for thousands of years.,练习,40,1.,这种圆柱形容器是我们自行设计和制造的。,2.必须充分利用我国所有的自然资源。,3.激光技术可以看作是近年来科学家取得的最重要成就之一。,4.我们的研究中心创造了一种强度与那种金属相同的合成材料。,5.电为人类所知晓已有好几千年了。,41,定语从句的译法(一),在英语的各种从句中，定语从句最为复杂，因此翻译时难度也往往最大。我们知道，在句中作定语的从句，称为定语从句，由关系代词和关系副词引导，置于被修饰语之后。但现代汉语里，但现代汉语里，却没有关系代词和关系副词。英语中定义从句后置的这种语言现象，汉语里也是没有的。英语定语从句的后置使句子长而复杂。而汉语的定语一般是前置定义，句子较短。英汉两种语言句子结构上的这些差异给翻译定语从句带来了较大困难。有些定语从句不仅结构复杂，而且含义繁多，与主句之间存在着状语关系，具有补充、原因、转折、结果、条件等意义。在科技英语中，定语从句和被动语态一样，出现的频率很高。,42,一、合译法,所谓合译法，主要是指把英语定语从句译成汉语的“的”字结构，放在被修饰词前，从而把定语从句和主句合译成汉语的单句。,合译法适合于翻译结构不很长的定语从句。,例：,1.,Space and Oceans are the new world which scientists are trying to explore.,太空和海洋是科学家正在努力探索的新领域。,2.Pollution is a pressing problem which we must deal with.,污染是我们必须解决的紧迫问题。,43,二、分译法,所谓分译法，是指将定语从句与主句分开，译成并列分句。凡形式上的定语从句，一般宜于译成并列分句。此外十分冗长的意义上的定语从句，译成汉语前置定语难于安排，或使句子冗长，头重脚轻，不符合汉语的表达习惯，也可采用分译法。例：,1.,Galileo was a famous Italian scientist by whom the Copernican theory was further proved correct.,伽俐略是一个著名的意大利科学家，他进一步证明可白尼学说是正确的。,2.They worked out a new method by which production has now been rapidly increased.,他们研制了一种新方法，这种新方法使生产大大提高。,44,三、溶合法,溶合法是指把原名中的主句和定语从句溶合起来译成一个独立句子的译法。定语从句与先行词关系密切时，往往可以将主句与定语从句合并译成一个简单句，使定语从句在汉译后成为单句中的谓语等句子成分。此译法特别适用于“,there be”,结构带有定语从句的句型。,例：,1.,There are some metals,which possess the power to conduct electricity and the ability to be magnetized.,某些金属既能导电又能被磁化。,2.There have been good results in the experiment,that have given him great encouragement,.,实验中的良好结果给了他莫大的鼓舞,。,45,练习：,1.,Science plays an important role in the society in which we live.,2.In the room where the electronic computer is kept, there must be no dust at all.,3.A floating object displaces an amount of water whose weight equals that of the object.,4.There are some chemical fuels that are clean and smokeless.,5.Divers,who dive down in the sea, know that the sea can be very cold.,46,定语从句的译法(二),在英语中，有些从句从语法结构上看是定语从句，但跟主句在逻辑上却有状语关系，说明原因、结果、目的、时间、条件或让步等。因此，翻译时可按其逻辑关系及内含语义译成汉语各种相应的复合句，也就是汉语的原因、结果、目的、时间、条件或让步等复句。,一、带有状语意义的定语从句的译法,例：,You must grasp that concept of “work”,which is very important in physics.,你必须掌握“功”的概念，因为它在物理学中很重要。,47,Einstein,who worked out the famous Theory of Relativity,won the Nobel Prize in 1921.,由于爱因斯坦提出了著名的“相对论”，因此，他于1921年获得了诺贝尔奖金。,例:,Copper, which is used so widely for carrying electricity, offers very little resistance,.,铜的电阻很小，所以广泛地用来传输电力。,There was something original about the plan that pleased all of them.,这个方案富于创造性，因此他们都很喜欢.,48,3.,译成表示让步的分句,The scientist,who was dog-tired, went on with the experiment.,那位科学家，虽已精疲力竭，但还是继续进行实验。,There was something original about the plan,that pleased all of them.,这个方案富于创造性，因此他们都很喜欢,49,Thomas Edison, who had failed again and again in his experiment,did not lose heart.,尽管实验一再失败，托马斯.爱迪生并没有失去信心。,例：,For any machine whose input and output forces are known, its mechanical advantage can be calculated.,对于任何机器来说，如果知其输入力和输出力，就能求出其机械效益,。,50,Those machine parts,the surfaces of which are pitted, must be changed.,如果机器零件表面起了麻点，就必须更换。,二、特种定语从句的译法,所谓特种定语从句，指的是修饰整个主句内容的非限制性定语从句。这种定语从句只能由,which,和,as,引导。,1.,由,which,引导的特种定语从句,这种从句总是位于主句之后，通常说明整个主句，其前有逗号分开。英译汉时，一般采用分译法，,which,通常译成“这”，有时也可译成“从而”，“因而”等。,51,例：,Metal is very strong and can be made into any required shapes,which makes it possible to be widely used in industry.,金属坚硬，又能加工成任何所需形状，这使它能在工业中得到广泛应用。,Scientists are trying to imitate some of the capabilities of the human brain, which will be able to lead to the construction of an entirely new electronic computer.,科学家正试图模仿人脑的某些能力，这将能够导致建造一种完全新式的电子计算机。,52,2.,由,as,引导的特种定语从句,这种定语从句位置灵活，可以位于主句之后、之前，还可以位于主句当中，翻译时主句与从句分译，往往把,as,译成“正如那样”、“如”、“象”等。常见的表达法及其译法。,as seen from table,如表中所示,as shown in the figure,如图所示,as mentioned above,如上所述,as is well known to all,众所周知,as the name indicates,顾名思义,as may be imagined,可以想象,as has been pointed out,正如已指出的那样,as often happens,正如经常发生的那样,53,练习：,1.,Electronic computers, which have many advantages, cannot replace man.,2.Friction,which is often considered as a trouble, is sometimes a help in the operation of machines.,3.He cannot afford to buy the dictionary which is too expensive.,4.,Matter has certain features that enable us to recognize.,5.Iron, which is not so strong as steel, finds wide application.,6.He wishes to write an article that will attract public attention.,7.,Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, which is the universally accepted law.,8.As is known to us all, the burning of any fuel requires oxygen,.,54,否定句的译法,英语的否定形式是一个常见而又比较复杂的问题，使用非常灵活、微妙，被认为是英语的特点之一。科技英语里否定形式的应用也很广。在表达否定概念时，英语在用词、语法和逻辑等方面与汉语都有很大不同。有的英语句子形式上是肯定的而实质上是否定的，有的则形式上是否定的而实质上是肯定的；英语否定词否定的范围和重点有时难于判断；某些否定词和词组的习惯用法较难掌握。因此在翻译英语否定形式时，必须细心揣摩，真正彻底理解其意义及否定的重点，然后根据汉语的习惯进行翻译。,55,例如：,The mountain is not valuable because it is high.,误山因其高而无价值。,正山不因其高而有价值。,We cannot emphasize too much the importance of the process.,误我们不能过分强调这种方法的重要性。,正这种方法的重要性我们怎样强调也不过分。,英语否定的表达形式很多，下面仅就汉译时较常出现理解和表达错误的几种形式进行说明。,56,一、否定成分的转译,英语的否定词在句中究竟否定什么，对理解和翻译极为重要。有些英语否定句形式上是一般否定,(,否定谓语,),，实际却是特指否定,(,否定其他成分,),；相反，有些形式上是特批否定意义上却是一般否定。翻译时应根据汉语的习惯进行否定成分的转译。,The object did,not,move because I pushed on it.,不是,因为我推了它，该物体才移动。,The basic design of the steam engine has undergone,no,major change in over 200 years.,两百多年来，蒸汽机的基本结构,没有,发生任何重大变更。,57,二、部分否定的译法,B,oth of the substances do dissolve in water.,不是两种物质都溶于水。,Friction is not always a disadvantage. In many instances it is highly important.,摩擦并不总是不利的，在许多情况下，它是非常重要的。,英语的否定有全部否定与部分否定之分。全部否,定否定整个句子的全部意思，用,none, neither, no, not,nothing, nobody,等否定词构成。部分否定则主要由,all,every,both,always,等含全体意义的詞与否定词构成。,58,三、形式否定,英语中有的否定词与其它词连用形成一种固定结构，这种结构形式上否定的，但实际是肯定的意思。常见的有“,nothinglike”(,没有什么比得上,),，“,cannottoo”(,总不过分；越,越好,),等。“,cannottoo”,的结构可以有变体，如,cannot,可改用,impossible,，,not,可用,scracely,hardly,never,等代替。,We cannot be too careful in doing experiments.,做实验越仔细越好。,It is impossible to overestimate the value of the invention.,这项发明的价值无论怎样估计也不算高。,59,四、强调否定,英语中有许多加强否定语气的手段和形式，如用否定词,never, no, not, none,之后加,at all, whatever, nearly, possible,等，这类词组里的副词,nearly,等不再作“将近”，“几乎”等义，而是用来强调。汉译时应表达出强调的否定语气。把,not nearly,not half,译为“根本不,(,没有,)”,，,cannot possibly,译为“根本不会”、“无论如何不会”等。,His last three experiments were,not nearly,so well done as the earlier ones.,他的最后三次试验做得,远远不如,早期的试验那么好,。,The outcome of the experiment was,not half,bad.,试验的结果,相当好,。,He,never,came,anywhere,near knowing what it was.,他,根本不懂得,这是什么。,60,六、含蓄否定,英语里有些词或词组形式上是肯定的，但意义往往是否定的。由这类词或词组表达的否定称为含蓄否定或意义否定。汉译时，一般要把否定的意义明确译出。,1,.,动词或动词短语引起的否定,常见的有：,fail(to do),不能，没有,(,做,.),，,lack,缺乏，,refuse,拒绝，,stop,停止，,protectfrom,保护,免受等。,If the follower loses contact with the cam, it will,fail to,work.,假如从动件和凸轮脱离接触，就,不能,起作用。,Good lubrication,keeps,the bearings,from,being damaged.,润滑良好使轴承,不受,损坏。,61,2.,名词引起的否定,常见的有：,neglect,忽视,absence,缺乏,loss,失去等,。,A few instruments are in a state of,neglect,.,一些仪器处于,无人,管理状态。,And in true chicken-or-the-egg fashion,the lack,of courseware deters the purchase of computers by schools.,这真是一个先有鸡还是先有蛋的问题，,没有,教学软件，学校就不敢购买计算机。,3.,形容词或形容词短语引起的否定,常见的有：,free from(,不受,影响,),ignorant of (,不知道,),，,last(,最不可能的,),，,little(,少,),few(,少,),等。,62,The study confirmed that,few,people are likely to,escape the effects of nuclear exchange.,研究证实,几乎无人,能逃脱互投核弹造成的恶果。,The precision instrument must be kept,free from,dust.,精密仪器必须保持,无,尘,Japan is the,last,country to invent radar,but England.,发明雷达的国家,决不,是日本，而是英国。,4.,介词或介词短语引起的否定,常见的有：,beyond(,超出,),above (,超出,之外,),，,beside (,同,无关,),，,beneath(,不值得,),instead of (,而不是,),等。,The problem is,beyond,the reach of my understanding,这个问题我,无法,理解。,63,It was,beneath,me to beg.,不值得,我去乞求。,The theory of Relativity worked out by Einstein is now,above,many peoples comprehension.,爱因斯坦提出的“相对论”，现在还有不少人理解,不了,。,The problem is,beyond,the reach of my understanding,这个问题我,无法,理解,。,5.,连词或某些短语引起的否定,常见的有：,before(,尚未,),but (,若不,),，,rather than(,而不,),等。,Never start to do the experiment,before,you have checked.,没有,检查好仪表，切勿开始做试验。,The temperature would have continued to go up,but,that feedback took place.,要不是发生反馈，温度还会继续升高。,64,练习：,1.The machine did,not,stop because the fuel had run out.,2.All substances are not good conductors of electricity,.,3.It cannot be too much emphasized that agriculture is the foundation of the national economy.,4.The ancient people who lived simple lives of hunting and fishing did no harm at all to the environment.,5.There is no material but will deform more or less under the action of force.,65,