定价的策略讲义和战术

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,管理经济学,陶志刚,*,The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing,定价的策略和战术,管理经济学,1,陶志刚,The Cost-Plus Delusion,加成,定,价法的谬误,Financial prudence,谨慎财务,How to determine mark-up?,如何决定加成比例?,管理经济学,2,陶志刚,Value,-Based,Pricing,根据消费者购买意愿定价,In 1964, Ford,introduced,Mustang, at a base price of $2,368, and made a net profit of $1.1 billion in just the first two years,1964年福特推出定价为2368美元的,Mustang,车来满足消费者的需求,在最初的两年间净利达11亿美元,伦敦“疯人,”,饭店,可口可乐的新型贩卖机,Coca-Colas New Vending Machine,管理经济学,3,陶志刚,Key Factors For an Effective Pricing Strategy,有效订价策略的决定因素,customers willingness to pay for the good or service,消费者的购买意愿,cost of providing the good or service,生产成本,degree of competition,竞争程度,管理经济学,4,陶志刚,Generic Pricing Strategies,普遍适用的定价策略,Skimming: setting price high relative to the economic value of most potential customers,撇脂策略: 设定高价格，为少数优质客户服务,Penetration: setting price low relative to the economic value in order to gain from high market share or volume,簿利多销策略: 以低廉的价格来获取庞大的市场份额或销量,管理经济学,5,陶志刚,Determinants of Demand,什么因素决定消费者购买意愿,Preference,消费者偏好,- the more the better, but the more the less,desirable,越多越好,但越多越不热切,Income,收入,Prices of other goods,相关产品,(,替代品,互补品,),的价格,Advertising,广告,管理经济学,6,陶志刚,Foe or Friend,是互替,还是互补,Traditional Bookstores V. Online Bookstores,传统书店对网上书店,Traditional camera V. Digital Camera,传统相机对数码相机,Traditional newspapers V. “Newer” Newspapers,传统媒体对新媒体,管理经济学,7,陶志刚,How to secure complements?,怎样才能得到互补品的支持?,Agreements with firms producing complementary goods,激励其他公司提供互补品,Self provision through acquisition of firms producing complementary goods,通过收购相关公司,自己提供互补品,Government provision,寻求政府帮助,管理经济学,8,陶志刚,Special Determinants For Demand Of Durable Goods,耐用品需求的特定因素,Expectation about future prices and income,对未来价格和收入的期望,Financing costs,融资成本,管理经济学,9,陶志刚,Factors influencing market demand:,影响市场需求的因素,Income level and distribution,收入高低和分布,Population and demographics,人口多少及构成,Market saturation,市场渗透率,Network externality,外部效用,管理经济学,10,陶志刚,Price Elasticity of Demand,需求价格弹性,定义,: 1%,的价格增长所引起的需求的变化量,需求价格弹性,=,需求量的变化,价格的变化, Demand elasticity captures both customers willingness to pay and also the degree of competition,消费者购买意愿及市场竞争程度都反映在需求弹性上,管理经济学,11,陶志刚,Price Elasticity: Determinants,价格弹性: 决定因素,availability of direct or indirect substitutes,直接或间接替代品的多少,Difficult comparison effect,不可比较效应,Perceived substitutes effect,被认为的替代效应,Price-quality effect,价格质量效应,Inventory effect,库存效应,管理经济学,12,陶志刚,More on Determinants of Price Elasticity,再谈价格弹性的决定因素,cost / benefit of economizing,寻找替代品的成本及收益,E,ngine oil,引擎油,Michelin,Type,米其林轮胎,buyers prior commitments,买方是否有事前的投入,separation of buyer and payee,购买者和付款者的分离,管理经济学,13,陶志刚,Optimal Pricing: Demand Elasticity,最优定价要素之一,:,需求,弹性,Demand elasticity captures both customers willingness to pay and also the degree of competition,消费者购买意愿及市场竞争程度都反映在需求弹性上,A,lways set price so that demand is elastic,总是设立价格, 使需求具有弹性,I,f demand more elastic, then lower incremental margin percentage,and lower the price relative to marginal cost,如果需求弹性较大,边际毛利率就低,价格相对于边际成本就低,管理经济学,14,陶志刚,Optimal Pricing: Marginal Costs,最优定价要素之二,:,边际成本,Fixed costs V. Marginal costs,固定成本对边际成本,Why only marginal costs matter?,为什么边际成本,(,运营成本,),那么重要,?,-,Telecoms,电讯行业,- Air travel,航空运输业,管理经济学,15,陶志刚,Relevant Marginal Costs,相关的边际成本,relevant costs may be hidden,相关成本往往被传统损益表忽略,irrelevant costs may be shown in accounts,不相关成本则可能出现在传统损益表,管理经济学,16,陶志刚,Wing On Group, 1993,永安集团, 1993,Revenue,收入,HK$2,236 million,Expenses,成本,HK$2,210 million,Profit,利润,HK$ 26 million,Opportunity cost,机会成本,HK$ 53 million,管理经济学,17,陶志刚,Shanghai Petrochemical, 1994,上海石化,，,1994,Profit: 1.78 billion yuan,利润,: 17.8,亿人民币,The company received 4.5 million metric tons of crude at a government-controlled price of 689 yuan (as compared to free-market price of 1100 yuan), the opportunity cost of which is 1.85 billion yuan.,公司获得,450,万吨政府补贴的原油,机会成本,为,18.5,亿人民币。,管理经济学,18,陶志刚,Opportunity Cost,机会成本,definition - net revenue from best alternative course of action,定义：所有被放弃的可能方案中能带来的最大净收益。,管理经济学,19,陶志刚,Debt to Equity,债转股,Investment by the Singaporean government in a petrochemical plant in the 1980s,80,年代新加坡政府对石化企业的贷款,Stated-owned enterprises in China,中国国有企业,管理经济学,20,陶志刚,Economic Value Added,经济附加价值,任何融资都有成本：借贷要付息, 股权要回报,EVA = revenue - all costs (including cost of equity capital),经济附加价值=收入-所有成本(包括资本金的成本),管理经济学,21,陶志刚,Apple Computer,苹果计算机,1988,年夏: 苹果用每芯片38美元共计几亿美元的代价购买 1,Megabit,的,DRAM,晶片,1989,年元月: 市场价格跌到23美元; 为给,Machitosh,定价, 1,Megabit,的,DRAM,库存该是多少成本呢?,管理经济学,22,陶志刚,Sunk Cost沉没成本,定义：已经或承诺支出、无法挽回的成本,管理经济学,23,陶志刚,A Common Excuse,不敌外来竞争的共同借口：需承担大批退休员工的福利,Japanese car manufacturers vis-vis the U.S. auto makers,美日汽车公司之间的竞争,Stated-owned enterprises versus foreign-invested companies in China,中国国企与外资企业之间的竞争,管理经济学,24,陶志刚,Uniform Pricing: Shortcomings,单一订价策略的缺点,leaves buyers with a lot of surplus,给购买者留下很多剩余,does not sell to every potential buyer,并没有出售给每个潜在的购买者,管理经济学,25,陶志刚,Complete Price Discrimination,完全价格歧视,price each unit at buyers benefit and sell quantity where MB = MC,每单位的价格订为购买者的最高支付意愿；卖到价格等于边际成本,maximum profit (,利润最大化),implementation: must know entire marginal benefit,curves,实施: 必须知道每个消费者的支付意愿情况,管理经济学,26,陶志刚,Hysterectomy in Hong Kong,香港的子宫切除术,price ranging from HK$20,000 to HK$200,000 even for same operation and treatment,同样的手术，但价格却从港币2万元到20万元不等.,charging patients according to their means as a HK “ tradition” (Dr. Leong Che-hung, SCMP, April 26, 1999),根据病人的支付能力收费, 是香港的“传统”,管理经济学,27,陶志刚,Direct Segment Discrimination,直接板块歧视,Different incremental margin % to each,identifiable,segment,对每个不同的顾客群 ,设定不同的价格,Implementation:,实施:,Fixed, identifiable characteristic - basic for segmentation,必须具有固定的, 可识别的顾客特征,No re-sale,防止顾客之间转销,管理经济学,28,陶志刚,Preventing Resale:“Not for Retail Sale”,防止转销:“不得零售”,Heinz serves,亨氏,institutional customers (food service, restaurants) directly,直接把产品销往机构客户,retail customers indirectly through supermarkets and grocery stores,通过超市和杂货店间接服务零售客户,管理经济学,29,陶志刚,Singapore Telecom Service,新加坡电讯公司服务定价,Fixed-line telephone service,固线服务,- Residential -SGD 26.25/quarter,民用,每季度,26.25,新币,- Business -SGD 39.38/quarter,商用,每季度,39.38,新币,What makes different prices possible?,如何实现价格歧视？,Can mobile telephone providers follow?,移动电话公司能否仿效直接价格歧视策略？,管理经济学,30,陶志刚,Asian Wall Street Journal,亚洲华尔街日报,年度订阅的价格,$59,世界范围,$871,Print: Tokyo,东京,$173,Print: Singapore,新加坡,$294,Print: Hong Kong,香港,管理经济学,31,陶志刚,Which Coca-Cola?,哪个可口可乐?,Two kinds of Coca-cola sold in Japan.,American Coke: $5.50 (wholesale price in American), $11.50 (wholesale price in Japan), and $18.30 (retail price in Japan),Made in Japan: $20.00 (wholesale price in Japan), $27.40 (retail price in Japan),Lucrative Japanese market: 5% volume, but at least 20% profit,在日本有两种可口可乐,美国可口可乐: 5.5美元(美国批发价格), 11.5美元(日本的批发价格), 18.3美元(日本的零售价),日本制造: 20美元(日本批发价), 27.4美元(日本零售价),可口可乐的日本市场占其总销量5%, 但利润贡献却超过20%,管理经济学,32,陶志刚,Indirect Segment Discrimination,间接板块歧视,structure,choice,to earn different incremental margins from each segment,通过为不同顾客群设计不同的产品来实现价格歧视，赚取利润,Implementation,实施,seller controls some variable to which segments,are differentially sensitive,销售商控制一些产品或服务性能, 不同顾客群对其具有不同的敏感性,管理经济学,33,陶志刚,Indirect Segment Discrimination in the Travel Industry,旅行业间接板块歧视,Pricing of air tickets飞机票定价,Visa fees 签证收费,Car-rental plans 租车计划,Pricing of hotel service 酒店服务定价,管理经济学,34,陶志刚,Whats the difference?,VW,Passat,Audi A-6,管理经济学,35,陶志刚,Indirect segment discrimination:Cannibalization,间接价格歧视的陷阱：自家产品相互竞争,Sales of one product reduce the demand for another with a higher incremental margin.,“低端”产品质量过高会造成自家产品相互竞争,Possible solutions:,degrade low-end item,upgrade high-end item,解决方法：,把高端产品做得更高而把低端产品做得更低,管理经济学,36,陶志刚,Singapore: Public hospitals,新加坡公立医院,Income level (per month),Class,A,B1,B2,C,$400,3%,14%,48%,35%,$1100,9%,26%,45%,20%,$3900,34%,28%,28%,10%,Some high-income people choose subsidized wards.,富人住三等病房， 穷人住一等病房,管理经济学,37,陶志刚,Pricing Policies: Ranking,不同订价策略的比较,Profitability,赢利性,Policy,政策,Information Requirement,信息要求,Highest,最高,Complete price discrimination,完全价格歧视,Highest,最高,Direct segment discrimination,直接板块歧视,Indirect segment discrimination,间接板块歧视,Lowest,最低,Uniform pricing,单一订价策略,Lowest,最低,管理经济学,38,陶志刚,Specific,pricing policies,具体定价策略,Package deal 套餐,Two-part pricing 入场费外加使用费,Bundling 捆绑,管理经济学,39,陶志刚,Pricing Concert Series,系列音乐会订价,管理经济学,40,陶志刚,Diplomacy of Price Competition,价格竞争的外交术,Not winning pricing battles, but preventing those that are not worth fighting,不是赢得价格战,而是避免不必要的价格战,evaluating managers not only by their ability to win sales and market share but also by their ability to achieve profitability over the long haul,评估经理们, 不要光看他们赢得销售和市场份额的能力, 更要看他们达到长期赢利的能力,管理经济学,41,陶志刚,Stop the War Before It Starts,让价格战胎死腹中,Reveal your strategic intentions,披露你的策略意图,price-matching policies,价格匹配政策,Reveal your cost advantage,披露你的成本优势,Standard Oil,标准石油公司,Walmart,沃尔玛,管理经济学,42,陶志刚,Responding with Nonprice Actions,非价格竞争的回应,Focus on quality,专注于质量,Alert customers to risk of poor quality,提醒顾客劣质的风险,Seek help,寻求援助,from governments, suppliers, customers,来自政府, 供应商, 顾客,管理经济学,43,陶志刚,Using Selective Pricing Actions,有选择的价格竞争,Modify only certain prices,只调低某些价格,Fight Brands,引进战斗性品牌,管理经济学,44,陶志刚,Consistent Discount Pricing,与价格折扣相应的措施,The customer commits to accept a negotiated price if it is approved by the salespersons management.,客户承诺接受谈判好的价格,Discount be tied to the elimination of the service or feature that the customer claims not to value.,取消客户认为没有价值的服务和功能,The customer commits to a long-term purchase agreement in return for gaining a discount.,客户承诺长期的购买协议。,管理经济学,45,陶志刚,Aggressive Pricing,进攻性订价,Enjoy a substantial cost advantage (Wal-Mart, Standard Oil ),享有巨大的成本优势,How to attack?,如何进行价格战,?,管理经济学,46,陶志刚,Generic Pricing Strategies,普遍适用的定价策略,Skimming: setting price high relative to the economic value of most potential customers,撇脂策略: 设定高价格，为少数优质客户服务,Penetration: setting price low relative to the economic value in order to gain from high market share or volume,簿利多销策略: 以低廉的价格来获取庞大的市场份额或销量,管理经济学,47,陶志刚,Beauty-Products Business,美容产品,LOreal has dominated the $90 billion beauty-products industry by wooing women with Parisian chic,欧莱雅依仗其“巴黎,魅力,”获得众多女性的青睐,在,总产值九百亿美元的美容产品行业中占领主导地位,P&G, a leader in soap and diaper business, leapfrogged LOreal leading position in mass-market beauty products through the $50 billion takeover of Clairol in 2001,宝洁原来只是肥皂及尿布市场中的佼佼者,但是当它于2001年以500亿美元收购依卡露公司之后,就超越了欧莱雅在大众美容产品市场上的地位,管理经济学,48,陶志刚,LOreal v. P&G,欧莱雅与宝洁的较量,P&G: the women who speak for its beauty products are unknowns/use no-nonsense comparative advertising in cosmetics,宝洁: 选用的广告模特都是些不知名的人/认为化妆品广告,应实实在在,只需要让顾客了解,该公司产品与其他公司产品不同之处即可,LOreal: employ dozens of models and actresses / In cosmetics, “you have to inform, convince but also seduce consumers and not just ram facts down their throats.”,欧莱雅: 花钱请来好多有名的模特和演员/认为在化妆品广告中, “你不仅要让顾客了解产品,你还要诱使她们购买产品单纯的讲述事实是不行的.”,Just as P&G tried to penetrate the high-end beauty-product market dominated by LOreal, LOreal began to sell more shampoos,宝洁正试图进入由欧莱雅所控制的高端美容产品市场,而同时欧莱雅也正尝试销售更多的洗发水,管理经济学,49,陶志刚,Profit Goes Up in Smoke in the Top U.S. Tobacco Firms,美国最大的烟草公司利润,急剧下滑,50-year consolidation led by Philip Morris and Reynolds / cozy oligopoly / regular and hefty price increases to fuel profit growth,美国烟草行业经过了近50年的,整合,产生出两家最大的烟草公司, 寡头垄断/持续的大幅度提价来保证公司利润增长,Dramatic price increases since 1997/199,8, because of huge settlement payments ($246 billion settlements over 25 year), and increases in state cigarette tax (from $.42 in 2001 to $.62 in 2002),1997,至,1998,年间,开始出现大幅度的价格增长,主要因为,烟草行业承诺支付巨额的庭外和解费用,另外,州政府的香烟税也大幅上涨,loyal customers quit entirely (7% drop in 1999 as compared with 1-2% per year in the past) or switch from brand name cigarettes to super-cheap cigarettes made by small manufacturers,原来的忠实客户有的干脆戒烟,剩下的人当中,有一部分从抽高档烟转成抽那些小生产商生产的低价烟.,管理经济学,50,陶志刚,