英语段落写作课件

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,English Paragraph Writing,英语段落写作,段落写作,段落是文章内容中具有一个完整意义的外部表现形,态，是文章结构的基本单位。段落通常由若干个对,一个主要观点展开论述的相互关联的句子组成。但,段落并非是句子的随意堆砌，句子内容之间应该具,有连贯和逻辑性。段落表达的内容应该是单一的，,一个段落只能表达一个意思，而不能把意思上互不,相关的句子堆砌在一起，造成段落内容的庞杂错乱,；段落表达的内容应该是完整的，一个意思应当尽,量集中在一个段落里陈述，最好不要分割成两段或,几段，而使段落内容支离破碎。,English Paragraph Writing,1 Paragraph Structure,段落的构成,2 Paragraph Unity,段落的整体性,3 Paragraph Coherence,段落的连贯性,1. Paragraph Structure,段落的构成,One English paragraph usually includes the,following three parts:,(1) Topic Sentence,主题句,(2),Supporting / Developing Sentence,辅助句,/,支撑句,/,发展句,(3) Concluding Sentence,结尾句,Topic sentence,主题句,?,在段落中用于概括段落主旨大意的句子，叫做主,题句。一个好的主题句能够准确地表达作者的观,点或态度。关于主题的这个观点或态度成为主题,思想（,controlling idea,）。主题句限定了在一个,单独的段落中所允许讨论的内容。,?,例：,主题句,Gold, a precious metal, is prized,for two important characteristics.,该句中,gold,是主题词，,two important characteristics,是表,达主题思想的关键词。,How to Write a Good Topic Sentence,Three essential points:,3,个要点,1.,主题句必须是一个完整的句子，包括一个主语，一,个谓语动词，常常还带有其它修饰语。下面的例子中,虽然有的包括主题思想，但并不是完整的句子。,Fragments,：,?,Driving on freeways.,?,How to register for college classes.,?,The benefits of television to children.,Fragments,：,?,Driving on freeways.,?,How to register for college classes.,?,The benefits of television to children.,Revised sentences:,?,Driving on freeways requires skill and,alertness,机敏,.,?,Registering for college classes can be a,frustrating experience for new students.,?,Television benefits young children in three,major ways.,How to Write a Good Topic Sentence,Three essential points:,2.,主题句由主题词和主题思想的表述两部分构成,主题词表明讨论的对象。主题思想的表述部分,限制或控制这个主题在一个段落中能够被论述,的具体方面。它应该是能够展述主题思想的一,个词或一个短语，即关键词。,Topic and,controlling idea,?,The topic sentence gives a paragraph,direction and purpose. It tells what the,paragraph is about (the topic), and how,the writer will develop that topic (the,controlling idea).,?,试分析下列的主题句：,例,1,The Womens Movement has had,several effects,on the English language.,在这个主题句中，表达主题思想的关键词是,several,effects,，它规定了谈论的主题和内容。为了论证这个,主题思想，作者应提供具体细节或实例来回答这样的问,题：“,What reasons did I have for saying several,effects?”,有可能列出以下原因：,1,）,It has created Ms., a title for women comparable to,Mr. for men.,2)The Movement has changed the ending of several,compound words from,man to,person.,3) The Movement is responsible for some new terms.,例,2,Students on this campus recently voiced,several complaints.,问题：该主题句中，表达主题思想的关键词是,什么？,答案：,several complaints,所以在主题句后，应辅以细节来论证主题思想,several,complaints,。,有可能列出下列事实：,1,）,They voiced dissatisfaction with the campus,lighting.,2) They expressed their disgust with the,cafeteria food.,3) They protested the grading politics of the,instructors.,例,3,Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive,habit .,该主题句中，主题是,the habit of smoking,cigarettes,主题思想是,Smoking cigarettes can be expensive,。,在此句中,expensive,是表示主题思想的关键词，在展开,主题句的段落中，应论证吸烟的确是开销较大的一种习,惯。下面是一个说明主题展开的段落提纲。,1,）,Cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.,2,）,The average smoker smokes two packs a day.,3,）,The annual expense for this smoker is $547.50.,4,）,The smoker must also pay for extra cleaning of,carpets, furniture, and clothes.,How to Write a Good Topic Sentence,3.,由于主题句仅仅提及主题思想，因此只是一种概括性,的陈述而不提供具体的细节，它能被段落中其它句子,解释、论证或分析。主题句应该对该段落内容进行适当,概括和限制。主题句如果太过笼统，就不能包含具体的,思想和观点，对段落如何展开缺乏指导和限定，使读者,由于内容太空泛而很难确切地知道本段要谈论的内容；,主题句如果太具体，读者就会发现作者对这段内容已无,发挥、充实的余地，而无法将主题句展开。,Which is a good topic sentence?,?,1. American food is terrible.,?,2. American food is tasteless and greasy,because Americans use too many canned,frozen, and prepackaged foods and,because everything is fried in oil or butter.,?,3. American food is tasteless and greasy.,1. American food is terrible.,第一句作为主题句不合适，因为句子内容阐,述,过于笼统和抽象,，段落扩展的,发挥点不,明确,。,2. American food is tasteless and greasy,because Americans use too many canned,frozen, and prepackaged foods and,because everything is fried in oil or butter.,第二句,缺乏概括性的特点,，局限于某个具,体事务，而在文字和内容上无法再进一步,展开。,3. American food is tasteless and greasy.,第三句,具有概括性的观点,，可以通过列举事实、说明,理由，补充细节材料，展开段落内容。所以，这是一,个比较好的主题句。,?,试分析下面的句子：,是否能做主题句,？,?,Hong Kong is famous for its developed economy,high standard of living, and intercultural,atmosphere.,?,分析：这个句子包含了,过多的信息，主体不明确，这,会使段落缺乏统一性,。句中所阐述的三个部分的内容,是互不相关的，不能单独放再单独的一个段落内叙述,，而应放在三个段落里写。改写为：,Hong Kong is,famous for its developed economy,，就可以成为一,个比较好的主题句了。,Activity,Identify which is the topic sentence:,?,1.,Systolic pressure,收缩压,between 140 and 160,indicates borderline hypertension.,?,2.,In the usual blood pressure reading, the systolic,measurement is given first and is the higher of the,two.,?,3.,Systolic pressure is taken when the heart is,contracting to pump blood;,diastolic pressure,舒,张压,is taken when the heart is resting between,beats.,?,心脏收缩泵血时测得收缩压；心脏舒张时测得舒张压,Activity,Identify which is the topic sentence:,?,4.,Blood pressure measurement has two,components: systolic and diastolic.,?,5.,Normal blood pressure is a systolic,measurement of 140, and when the systolic,pressure is 160 or higher, then hypertension,exists.,How to Write a Good Topic Sentence,Position of Topic Sentence:,主题句的位置,?,主题句的位置比较灵活，通常位于段首，其优,点是开门见山，一目了然。用演绎法写的段落也,称,“扩张法”，就是以概述主题开首，随之辅以,细,说，即用具体细节或事例来演绎展开主题句中的,主题思想。,?,主题句有时也位于段落的中间。这种写作方法,常用来比较或对比不同的对象。段中主题句起承,上启下，使上下文平衡的作用。,How to Write a Good Topic Sentence,Position of Topic Sentence:,主题句的位置,?,用归纳法写段落也称作“收拢法”，从细节出,发，最后归纳到段落的中心论点。用此种方法,写作时，主题句一般位于段落的末尾，它是依,据上文的细节推论出的论点，起到画龙点睛的,作用。,?,在有的段落中，主题句甚至不直接写出来，而,是通过细节的陈述含蓄地表达出段落的主题思,想。是，需有读者意会。,?,尽管主题句可以出现在段落中的任何位置，,但对于英语写作的初学者来说，大多数情况,下，采用段首主题句的方法进行写作练习，,便于扩展和限制全段的写作，是一种行之有,效的方法。我们必须明确，主题句无论出现,在段落的何处，都必须是段落内容的焦点，,即必须涵盖段落其它句子所阐述的论点。,Practice,Read each of the following,paragraphs. If you find a topic,sentence, underline it.,?,Paragraph1,?,Changes in the prices of goods can cause,changes in production and consumption.,Production increases when the prices are,high. As the prices of goods go up, producers,make more goods because they can make,more money when they sell the goods. On the,other hand, consumption incrassates when the,prices are low. As the prices goods go down,consumers buy more goods because of the,low prices.,?,Paragraph2,?,Albert Einstein, one of the worlds geniuses,failed his university entrance examinations,on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of,Americans noted writers, never finished,college because he could not pass his,English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who,is considered one of the masters of the,English language, had to have special,tutoring in English during elementary school.,These examples show that failure in school,does not always predict failure in life.,How to Write Good Supporting,Sentences,辅助句也称展开句或推展句。,辅助句是主题句的延伸,，是段落中对主题句进行具体论证的句子，即以具体,的和真实的细节对段落主题进行阐述、说明、举证或,引申，从而扩展深化主题。,学生在英语写作中存在的一个最大的问题常常是在文,章中缺乏组走的信息和具体细节来说明或支持段落主,题。要写好辅助句，必须注意所有辅助句的阐述都要,与主题密切相关，要有充分的论证细节来说明主题思,想，保持句子的连贯性，所有的句子都应按其逻辑顺,序排列。,?,例,My roommate Paul possesses the,characteristics of a good student. One of his,characteristics is always being prepared for,classes.,For example, when his philosophy,professor assigns a class discussion on the,idea of Kant,（康德）, he goes to the library,and does extensive research on the subject. In,addition, when his English instructor assigns,an out-of-class essay, he brings to class the,final copy of an essay that he has revised,several times.,?,在这个段落中，辅助句以简明和独特的具体实,例来论证和展开主题句，而且所有句子都统一,于这个主题。,Activity,Try developing the topic sentences. Illustrate your,personality with specific examples.,I am a very sensitive person.,I am a very independent person.,I think I would be a good friend.,I,am,a,very,sensitive,person,and,thats,good to a point. I feel everyone should be,able to feel or understand what others are,going through. But when you hurt, cry, or,are,unhappy,for,people,you,dont,know,or for a movie that is not real, then I think,thats a little too sensitive. Thats the way,I am.,I am a very,independent,person. I must do,things for myself. I dont like people doing,things for me, or helping me, or giving me,things.,Its,not,that,I,dont,appreciate,it,because I do. I just feel that when someone,does something for you, you owe them, and,if there is one thing I dont like to feel, its,that I owe anyone anything.,I think I would be,a good friend,. I would do,almost,anything,for,someone,I,like,and,would,share,or,give,anything,I,have.,Im,very caring and understanding. People trust,me,with,their,secrets,and,theyre,right,for,doing so because I never tell any secret that,is,told,to,me.,Im,always,there,to,help,in,any,way,that,I,can.,All,you,have,to,do,is,ask.,How to Write a Good Concluding,Sentence,?,使用表示段落结尾的转承信号词，如,“,in,conclusion, in summary, finally, in brief, in sum, to,conclude, all in all,”,等。,?,对段落要点加以总结。,?,对主题加以评论，给读者留下深刻的印象。,Activity,Write a concluding sentence based on the given outline.,Topic Sentence:,There are three things that would,make me the happiest person in the world.,Body Part:,A happy family life,A satisfying career,Inner peace and security,Concluding Sentence:,In conclusion, if I could have,a good home life, a challenging job, and inner,strength, I would be contented and satisfied with,my life.,Practice,Finish writing the concluding sentences:,Producers,make,more,goods,when,prices,are,high,and,consumers,buy,more,goods,when,prices are low. As prices go up, producers make,more,goods,because,they,can,make,more,money,for,their,goods.,As,prices,go,down,consumers buy more goods because of the low,how,changes,in,the,prices,of,goods,prices.,This shows us,can,cause,changes,in,production,and,consumption.,Practice,Try to appreciate the following paragraph,and identify,：,(1) Topic sentence,(2) Supporting sentences,(3) Concluding sentences,Of,all,the,four,seasons,I,have,a,stronger,preference for spring. Spring is the season,when nature wakes up from her long winter,sleep,and,everything,starts,to,grow.,You,can always listen for birds singing, witness,butterflies,dancing,and,watch,bees,busy,with flowers. Spring is a season associated,with beautiful landscape. The sky is crystal,clear,so,is,the,water,with,beautiful,red,flowers and lovely green grass surrounding,you.,Spring,is,a,soft,song,sweet,and,melodious.,When,I,am,in,a,bad,mood,I,will,occasionally,search,my,memories,for,the,notes,of,this,song.,When,I,meet,with,difficulties,I,sing,the,song,to,find,comfort,nourishment,strength,and,inspiration,in,its,gentle,tune.,That,is,spring,my,favorite,season,dynamic,and,colorful,which,always,fills me with joy and gives me peace of mind.,keys,主题句,Of,all,the,four,seasons,I,have,a,stronger,preference for spring. Spring is the season,when nature wakes up from her long winter,sleep,and,everything,starts,to,grow.,You,can always listen for birds singing, witness,butterflies,dancing,and,watch,bees,busy,with flowers. Spring is a season associated,with beautiful landscape. The sky is crystal,clear,so,is,the,water,with,beautiful,red,flowers and lovely green grass surrounding,keys,结尾句,you.,Spring,is,a,soft,song,sweet,and,melodious.,When,I,am,in,a,bad,mood,I,will,occasionally,search,my,memories,for,the,notes,of,this,song.,When,I,meet,with,difficulties,I,sing,the,song,to,find,comfort,nourishment,strength,and,inspiration,in,its,gentle,tune.,That,is,spring,my,favorite,season,dynamic,and,colorful,which,always,fills me with joy and gives me peace of mind.,2.2 Paragraph Unity,段落的一致性是指文章基于一个统一的主题，,段落内容应保持一致，每个段落只能阐述一个中,心思想，每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关，那,些与主题无关和不能展开论证主题思想的句子应,删去，从而形成一个严谨的段落结构。,阅读下面,段落，并分析段落是否具有一致性。,例,1,There are few places in the world today that,have not been spoiled by industrial development,and pollution. The air we breathe is more often,than not polluted by the smoke from factory,chimneys and the exhaust fumes of motor,vehicles, while chemical waste poisons our rivers,lakes and seas. And by covering more and more,of the earths surface with buildings and roads, we,are erecting huge barriers of concrete between,ourselves and nature. It would appear that we are,purposely cutting ourselves off from nature and,destroying wildlife as we do so.,分析例,1,：,这段例文中，所有的句子都是围绕着“我,们,生存环境被污染，生态环境被破坏”这一主,题,论述的，具有较好的统一性。,例,2,Another problem facing a number of elderly,people is living on a reduced income. Upon,retiring, old people may receive a pension from,their company or Social Security from the,government. The amount of their monthly,checks is often half the amount the checks they,received when they were employed. Suddenly,retirees find that they can no longer continue the,life-style that they had become accustomed to,even if that life style was a modest one. Many,find, after paying their monthly bills, that there,is no money left for a movie or a dinner out. Of course,sometimes they cant go out because of their health.,Maybe they have arthritis or rheumatism, and it is,painful for them to move around. This can also change,their life style. Some older people, however, discover,that the small amount of money they receive will not,even cover their monthly bills. They realize with horror,that electricity, a telephone, and nourishing food are,luxuries they can no longer afford. They resort to,shivering in the dark, eating cat food in order to make,ends meet. (Smalley& Ruetten,1990,p.17),分析例,2,：,?,这个段落的主题是“,Another problem,facing a number of elderly people ”,，中心,思想是“,living on a reduced income”.,因此,，所有的句子都应围绕这个主题。但是在,这个段落中，,有三个句子并没有讨论这一,特定的主题。所以，这些句子应从这个段,落中删除，或应在另一个段落中展开。,Can you find out these sentences?,三个和主题不相关的句子,?,Of course, sometimes they cant go out,because of their health.,?,Maybe they have arthritis(,raitis,关节,炎,) or rheumatism,（,ru:m?tiz(?)m,风湿病,）, and it is painful for them to move,around.,?,This can also change their life style.,Activity,Identify,whether,the,following,paragraphs,are,unified.,Pick,out,any,sentence,which,is,not,related,to,the,controlling,idea,of,the,paragraph.,For,hundreds,of,years,man,has,made,use,of,the,talents,of,monkeys.,Ancient,Egyptian,paintings,show,baboons,狒狒,gathering,fruit,for,their,masters.,Even,in,1879,in,Abyssinia,monkeys were still being used as torchbearers,持,火炬者,at,feasts.,The,monkeys,would,sit,in,a,row,on,a,bench,and,hold,the,lights,until,the,guests went home. Then the monkeys would eat.,Most,of,the,worlds,zoos,contain,a,variety,of,monkeys for people to watch.,Which is not talent?,Monkeys,talents:,?,baboons gathering fruit,?,Monkeys being used as torchbearers,?,Monkeys in zoo for people to watch,?,下面是论述同一题目的两个段落。试比较,哪个段落具有整体性。,Paragraph 1,Progress is gradually being made in the fight,against cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer patients,had any hope of long-term survival. In the 1930s, less,than one in five cancer victims lived more than five,years. In the 1950s, the ratio was one in four.,Currently, the ratio is down to one in three. The gain,from one in four to one in three represents about,58,000 lives saved each year.,Paragraph 2,Progress is gradually being made in the fight against,cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer patients had,any hope of long-term survival. But because of,advances in medical technology, progress has been,made so that currently one in three cancer patients,survives. It has been proven that smoking is a direct,cause of lung cancer. However, the battle has not yet,been won. Although cures for some forms of cancer,have been discovered, other forms of cancer are still,increasing Heart disease is also increasing.,分析结果：,这两个段落都是讨论关于“,surviving cancer”,问题的，,两段的主题句相同，且均位于段首。第一段例文阐明,主题句之后，用连续直叙的方法展述，并用三个辅助,句以具体事实对其观点进行论证。结论句在前面展述,的基础上进行总结，并与主题句相呼应。整个段落紧,扣主题，结构层次清楚，具有同一性。在第二段例文,中，并不是每个句子都紧扣主题，破坏了段落内容的,整体性，段落显得缺乏统一性，是不可取的。,3 Paragraph Coherence,Coherence in a paragraph refers to the,way,the,sentences,are,arranged,and,to,their relationship to one another. When a,paragraph is coherent, the sentences are,arranged in a clear and logical order, the,transitions,are,smooth,and,natural,and,ideas,flow,smoothly,and,gracefully,from,one sentence to the next. As a result, the,reader finds it easy to follow the,writers,train of thought.,段落的连贯性,3 Paragraph Coherence,?,cohere,表示“,to stick”,或“,to hold together”,。连贯，,一是指结构上的连贯；二是指内容上的连贯。,?,也就是文章的结构层次和连接应按照一定的逻辑顺,序编排，在一个句子衔接下个句子时或是一个段落,连接下个段落时，必须合乎逻辑、连贯紧凑、不应,有跳跃。这样句子或段落衔接自然流畅，文章层次,分明，脉络清晰。读者就会比较容易跟随作者的思,路深入理解写作内容。,3 Paragraph Coherence,两种保持段落连贯性的方法。,?,第一，用转承词语或称,转承信号词,表明一个意思是,怎样与下一个意思相连的；,Transition signals,?,第二，按照一定的,逻辑顺序,排列句子，采用何种逻,?,辑顺序应取决于文章的主体和写作目的。最常用的,逻辑顺序是时间顺序、空间顺序和主次顺序。,Logical order,?,Chronological Order,时间顺序,?,Spatial Order,空间顺序,?,Order of Importance,重要性次序,Transition Signals,转承信号词,Transition,signals,are,words,such,as,first,second,next, finally, therefore, and,however, or phrases such as,in,conclusion,on,the,other,hand,and,as,a,result,.,Think of transition signals as traffic signs that tell your,reader when to go forward, turn, slow down, and stop.,In other words, they tell the reader when you are giving,a,similar,idea,(similarly,moreover,furthermore,in,addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, however,in,contrast),an,example,(for,example),a,result,(as,a,result),or,a,conclusion,(in,conclusion).,转承词是保持段落连贯的一个重要方法。转承词,与像桥梁一样把一个句子的意思同里一个句子连,接起来。转承词与是用于指示写作方向的词语，,告诉读者：作者在什么时候阐述一个相同的意思，,什么时候阐述一个相反的意思，什么时候举例，,什么时候给出结果或结论。因此运用转承词与不,仅能使行文连贯，而且能指导读者跟随作者的思,路,进,行,阅,读,，,清,楚,地,掌,握,该,短,的,脉,络,。,Here,are,some,of,the,most,common,transitional,words,and,phrases,and,the,r,e,l,a,t,i,o,n,s,h,i,p,s,t,h,e,y,s,h,o,w,.,?,to show addition,:,and, too, also, again, as well as, besides, in,addition,moreover,further,furthermore,b,o,t,h,a,n,d,n,o,t,o,n,l,y,b,u,t,a,l,s,o.,?,To show concession:,although,though,even,though,even,if,in,spite,of,despite,n,a,t,u,r,a,l,l,y,o,f,c,o,u,r,s,e,?,To show time sequence,once, before, after, afterward, always, when,at once, as soon as, to begin with, first,(second, third), in the meantime, in the past,(future), later, then, next, until, at last,finally, eventually, from then on, since then,and, again, first, second, third,?,To show place,in,front,of,on,the,other,side,behind,inside, outside, nearby, next to, opposite,beyond,below,under,at,this,point,?,To show result,so, thus, hence, as a result, for this reason,consequently,accordingly,therefore,all,in,all, altogether, finally, in brief, in conclusion,in,short,in,summary,to,summarize,?,To compare,similarly,in,the,same,way,likewise,?,To contrast,however,in,contrast,instead,nevertheless,然而,notwithstanding,虽然,on,the,contrary,on,the,other,h,a,n,d,o,t,h,e,r,w,i,s,e,否,则,?,To illustrate or explain,f,or,e,x,ampl,e,for,ins,t,a,nc,e,namely,in,particular,尤其,such,as, that is, to illustrate,说明，显示,?,To emphasize,indeed, in fact, above all, of course,unquestionably,most,important,last,but,not,least,specifically,?,To summarize,in brief , in other words , in short, as,has been said, on the whole, to sum,up, in conclusion,Read,the following paragraph and identify,the,transitional words,in it.,Nowadays, under the new tuition system, an,increasing,number,of,students,especially,those,poverty-stricken,students,now,seem,to,be,defeated,by,the,crushing,tuition,burden.,Therefore,Therefore,many,people,complain,that,the,new,tuition,system,keeps,poverty-,stricken,students,away,from,college.,However,However,in,my,opinion,the,new,tuition,system,does,add,much,difficulties,to,the,p,o,o,r,s,t,u,d,e,n,t,s,b,but,u,t,i,t,w,i,l,l,n,e,v,e,r,keeps,them,away,from,college.,First,First,carrying,out,the,new,tuition,system,in,the,governmental,should,provide,some,special,policy,for,poor,student.,Besides,Besides,they are entitled to take a loan from banks,or,do,some,part-time,jobs,during,their,spare,time,such,such as,as,weekends,and,holidays.,Finally,Finally,they,can,try,to,win,scholarship by additional efforts. In short ,In short,man proposes, and God disposes. No one,will be kept out of college due to financial,burden,unless,he,is,defeated,by,himself.,Practice,Please analyze and identify the transition devices used in the following paragraph.,Transitions,are,the,gl