Lecture 3 Word

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Chapter 3 Word,Introduction,English is an international language.,Nations that use English as the first language:,England, America, Australia,New Zealand, Canada.,Nations that use English as the second language: India, Pakstin, Nepal, Singopore, Nigeria, Malasia, etc.,An orthographic definition of a word,（正字法）,A word is “any sequence of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper, bounded on either side by a space or punctuation mark”,In terms of spoken language,A sound or combination of sounds, which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment,In terms of grammar,A free form that can function in a sentence,According to semanticists,A word is a unit of meaning,From the lexicological point of view,a word is a combination of form (phonological ) and meaning (lexical and grammatical),According to Leonard Bloomfields point of view,A word is a minimum free form,That is to say the smallest form that,may,appear in isolation.,E.g. Shoot! Yes. There. Up. Taxi!,By these definitions, a word will cover the following points,One or more letters combined together.,A minimal free form of a language that can function alone in a sentence.,A unity of sound and meaning.,The Definition,An English word is a minimal form of a language with one or more letters put together that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.,Word- simple/complex,Words can be simple and complex, but they must comply with these criteria.,Simple- book, pen. They have sound, meaning and syntactic function and each can be used alone in a sentence.,So they are words.,Word- simple/complex,Complex -,mis,-fortune, manage-,ment, they can not be divided.,Complex - blackleg can be divided, but the meaning is different.,Meaning someone who works when his colleagues are on strike.,Sound and Meaning,A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.,Each of the worlds cultures has come to agree that certain sound will represent certain person, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system,There is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself,.,Sound and Meaning,A dog is called dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic.,The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds,.,Sound and Meaning,In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.,Woman-Frau-Femme-,funv,Meet, meat, mete,Knight, night,Sound and Form,The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral,form.,The written form should agree with the oral form.- the sound should be similar to the form.,In old English-very true,Now, with the development of the language, more and more differences occur.,Reasons for the differences,The first reason is that there are more phonemes than letters in English.,The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language, so some letters must do double duty or work together in combination,Reasons for the differences,Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.,Reasons for the differences,A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.,Before printing- articles were handwritten, mistakes were made, i, u, v, m, w and n look alike, word spelling is free.,To solve the problem, they change u into o,Sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk-some, come, woman, wonder, monk,They decided that no word should end with m, n or v, so they add,e,at the end-live, have, due, true,Reasons for the differences,The fourth reason is the borrowing.,English borrowed words as well as the spelling.,The early ones were assimilated, but the later ones do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling.,Stimulus (L)-kimono (J)-blitzkrieg (G),Reasons for the Differences,Two things helped to standardize the spelling of words.,Printing-in the late 1500,Dictionaries,But sounds continue to change, thus bringing more differences.,Reasons for the Differences,The written form-imperfect representation of the spoken form.,Scholars have made efforts to reform the English spelling, but with little success.,In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns.,Irregular spellings have more regularity.,Hymn, condemn, bomb-hymnal, condemnation and bombard,Lexemes, words and vocabulary,A lexeme is the abstract unit which,underlies some,of the variants we have observed in connection with words,成为派生语的语根,.,Bring,is the lexeme which underlies,（构成,的基础）,different,grammatical variants: bring, brings, bringing. We refer these to word forms.,When we look up in the dictionaries, we are looking up lexemes rather words,.,Lexemes, words and vocabulary,All the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.,The term vocabulary is used in different senses.,It can refer to the total number of the words in a language.,Lexemes, words and vocabulary,It can also stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. E.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary,We can use it to all the words of a given dialect, a given book and the words possessed by an individual person.,Classification of Words,Full words and form words,Popular words and learned words,Abstract words and concrete words,Transparent words and opaque words,Polysemic words and,monosemic,words,Native words and loan words,Full words and form words,Can be classified according to their lexical meaning and grammatical function of words.,Nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs are full words or notional words,（表意词）,.,(with independent meaning),Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, are form words or functional words. (without independent meaning),Popular words and learned words,Popular words are usually used in ordinary conversation which concerned with common things of life.,Learned words are usually used in books. Though the learned words are known to educated,people,there is little opportunity to use them at home.,They are often of foreign origin. E.g. French, Latin, and Greek.,Abstract words and concrete words,Divided according to the character of words.,Abstract words refer to states, events, feelings, etc.,Concrete words are concerned with objects, things, etc.,Transparent words and opaque words,Divided according to motivation.,Transparent(,易懂的）,or motivated words are words whose meaning is determined from the meaning of their components. (small in number),The majority of words whose meanings and formations cannot be explained are called opaque or non-motivated words.,Polysemic words and,monosemic,words,A,polysemic,word has a range of different meanings.,A,monosemic,word has only a single meaning.,Native words and loan words,Divided according to origin.,Native words-Anglo-Saxon words.,Loan words -borrowed words from foreign languages.,Word Structure,Aristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech,Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level -an element smaller than the word.,Write-writer,Pens, desks,Morpheme,The smallest meaningful unit in a language, consisting of a word or part of a word that cannot be divided without losing its meaning.,Inexpensive,- contains two morphemes,in,and,expensive.,Each,morpheme has its own meaning.,A morpheme is also the smallest unit of grammatical analysis and can have or show a grammatical function.,E.g. s, -ed, -,ing, -,ment, -or, -,er, -,ly, -un,Words are composed of morphemes,Some words are formed by single morpheme.,Some words are formed by two or more morphemes.,Types of Morphemes,Bound morphemes,Affixes like:,s, -ed, -,ing, -,ment, -or, -,er, -,ly, -un,Free morphemes,book, pen, distinguish, laugh,Root & Stem,A root is the basic morpheme which provides the central meaning in a word.,When a root morpheme is combined with an affix, it forms a stem.,So a stem is a root plus affixes.,Differences Between Root & Stem,A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.,A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “cat” or of two root morphemes as in a compound like “doorman”.,It can be a root morpheme plus one or more,affixational,morphemes as in “foolish”, “unacceptable”.,Bound Root,A free root is the part,of the word that carries the fundamental,meaning.,Unlike,a free one, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.,-,dict,- meaning say or speak, but it is not a word in its own right.,With affixes it can form a number of other words,.,Bound Root,E.g. with prefixes,contra-,(=against) and,pre,- (=before) we get the words:,predict,and,contradict,meaning,tell beforehand and speak against,Dictate, dictator, dictation, dictionary, etc.,Affixes,Inflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationship. Including: -,er, -ed, -,ing, -,est,Derivational affixes: affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Including: Prefixes and suffixes. (we will discuss this later),Allomorph,同词素的异形词,Some morphemes can have the same form but still be different morphemes. E.g. the s in cats, cats, walks, and laughs or the ,er,in nicer, winner, eraser.,These variants are termed allomorphs or morphemic,variants.,Allomorph,E.g. the different realization of s in cats, dogs, and houses or ed in walked, showed, tried are determined by the different preceding consonants.,The prefix morpheme in- has allomorphs such as in-, im-, il-, ir-, depending on different consonants.,So Much for Today,