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Tort Law1GeneralTortlacivilwrongwhichunfairlycausessomeoneelsetosufferlossorharmItdoesnotincludebreachofcontractortrust.(Acivilwrongcanbeatort,breachofcontractorbreachoftrust.)Purposeoftortlawltoproviderelieftotheinjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousact2GeneralltodeterothersfromcommittingthesameactUStortlawlTortlawintheU.S.islargelycommonlaw.Courtshavethepowertoshapeandchangetheelementsofclaimsanddefensesofexistingtortsandthepowertocreatenewtorts.lStatuteshavebeenpassedinattemptstoreformthetortsystem.3GeneralMostofthemhaverelatedtoproceduralmattersandamountsandcategoriesofdamages.lManyjudgesutilizetheRestatement of Torts(2nd)asaninfluentialguide.TheRestatementisaninfluentialtreatiseissuedbytheAmericanLawInstitute,whichsummarizesthegeneralprinciplesofcommonlawUnitedStatestortlaw.Categoriesoftortslintentionaltorts4Generallnegligencelstrictliabilitytorts5Intentional Torts6GeneralDefinitionlAnintentionaltortisatortresultingfromanintentionalactonthepartofthetortfeasor.Subcategoriesltortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress7Generallpropertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversionldignitarytortsdefamationinvasionofprivacy 8TortsAgainstthePerson9AssaultDefinitionlanintentionalactthatcausesanapprehensionofimmediateharmfuloroffensivecontactApprehensionisnotthesameasfearhereitmeansawarenessthataninjuryoroffensivecontactisimminent.RequirementslTheactmustbeovert.Merewordsdonotconstituteanassault.10AssaultTheremustbeanaccompanyingact.lThedefendantmusthavetheapparentabilitytocarryoutthecontact.Actualabilitytocarryoutthecontactisnotnecessary.lTheplaintiffmusthaveareasonableapprehensionofsuchcontact.Actualfearontheplaintiffspartisnotrequired.Examples11AssaultlswingingabaseballbatatsomeonelholdingarockandthreateningtothrowitatsomeonelpointingagunatsomeonelpointingarealistictoygunatsomeoneCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultlCriminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.lWiththetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.12AssaultAdefendantwhothrowsarockatasleepingvictimandmissescanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.13BatteryDefinitionlanintentionalactthatcausesaharmfuloroffensivecontactHarmfulcontactlcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepainOffensivecontactlcontactthatwouldoffendapersonssenseofpersonaldignity14BatteryExampleslbeatingsomeonewithatireironlspittinginsomeonesfacelknockingahatoffsomeonesheadlwhippingahorseonwhichsomeonewasriding,causinghimtofallandbeinjuredlmixingsomethingoffensiveinfoodthatheknowsanotherwilleattheotherdoesinfacteattheoffensivematter15BatteryldiggingapitwiththeintentthatanotherwillfallintoitlatertheotherdoesinfactfallintoitCriminalandtortiousbatterylUsuallybatteryisprosecutedasacrimeonlyincasesinvolvingseriousharmtothevictim.Criminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.16False ImprisonmentDefinitionlthedetentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsentTheessenceofthetortisthenaturalmentalharmthatresultswhenonesfreedomisrestrictedwithoutjustification.Elementslintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainarea17False ImprisonmentlactualconfinementlawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfinedlnoreasonablemeansofescapeFalsearrestlFalsearrestoccurswhensomeonearrestsanotherindividualwithoutthelegalauthoritytodoso,whichbecomesfalseimprisonmentthemomentheorsheistakenintocustody.18IIEDDefinitionshortforintentional infliction of emotional distressreferredtoasthe tort of outrageinsomejurisdictionslintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementslThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly.19IIEDlThedefendantsconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous.lTheconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.SevereemotionaldistresslThistortinvolvesmorethanhurtfeelings,disappointment,orworry.lTheremustbeseverementalsuffering,i.e.suchthatnoreasonablepersonshouldbeexpectedtoendureit.20IIEDThisstandardisquantifiedbytheintensity,duration,andanyphysicalmanifestations(ulcersorheadaches,forexample)ofthedistress.ExampleslApersonrefusedtoinformanotherofthewhereaboutsofthatotherschildforseveralyears,thoughthepersonknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.21IIEDlApersonsentalettertoanotherfalselyinforminghimthataclosefamilymemberofhishadbeenkilledinanaccident.22Statute of LimitationsDefinitionlanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectiveltopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnesses23Statute of LimitationsFunctionlThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationlThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiffscomplaint.24Statute of LimitationslIfnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatutelWhenthestatuteistolled,therunningoflimitationsissuspendeduntilsomeeventspecifiedbylawtakesplace.Mostjurisdictionsprovidethatthestatuteoflimitationsistolledundercertaincircumstances:25Statute of LimitationsTheplaintiffisaminor.Theplaintiffhasbeendeemedinsane.Theplaintiffhasbeenconvictedofafelonyandisimprisoned.Thedefendantisinbankruptcy.26Shopkeepers PrivilegeGenerallInsomejurisdictionsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeepersprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhasprobablecausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.27Shopkeepers PrivilegeThisprivilegedoesnotincludethepowerofsearch.RequisiteconditionslInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.lReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.28Shopkeepers PrivilegelReasonableforceonlyOnlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.lReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.29PropertyTorts30Trespass to LandGenerallTrespasstolandoccurswhenapersondirectlyentersuponanotherslandwithoutpermission,orremainsupontheland,orplacesorprojectsanyobjectupontheland.lThebasisforthistortistherighttoexclusivepossessionoftheland.NaturelThistortisactionable per se.31Trespass to LandDamagesarenotrequiredtobeprovenforintentionaltrespass.Onlywhentheentryisnegligentisthereanyneedtoprovedamages.IntentlTheintentrequirementoftrespassisonlythatthepersonintendedtoentertheproperty.Itisirrelevantwhetherornottheentryisamistake,causedbyignoranceoftheownershiportheboundaries.32Trespass to LandNotelTherightsinherentinthepossessionoflandextendaboveandbelowthesurface.33Trespass to ChattelsDefinitionltheintentionalinterferencewithanotherpersonslawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferencelanyphysicalcontact(intermeddling)withthechattelinaquantifiablewaylanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheownersaccesstoit)34Trespass to ChattelsNotelIncasesofintermeddling,thereneedstobeactualharmsustainedbytheplaintiffinorderforhimtosue.Damagesarelimitedtotheactualharm(whichcanincludeeconomiclossasaresultofthetrespasse.g.lossofprofitonadamagedchattel).lIncasesofdispossession,theplaintiffisalwaysentitledtodamagesevenifnoquantifiableharmcanbeproven.35Trespass to ChattelsExamplelHermanseeshisWar and Peacesittingonatable.Hepicksupthebook,putsitinhisbagandgoeshome.Infact,thebookbelongstoLeonandHermanhasmistakenitforhisowncopy.lInthiscase,HermanisliableforatrespasstochattelsbecauseheintendedtotakeLeonsbook,eventhoughhisactionwasbasedonareasonablemistake.36ConversionGenerallConversionoccurswhensomeonewrongfullytakesorusespropertyofanotherfortheirownpurposesordestroysitoraltersitsnature.ConversionandtheftlTheftwillalsobeconversion.lButnotallconversionsaretheftsbecauseconversionrequiresnoelementofdishonesty.37ConversionPropertysubjecttoconversionlItmustbepersonalproperty.Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.lItmustbetangible.money,ananimal,furniture,ortoolscropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)rightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynote38ConversionExampleslApersonhasanotherscartowedawayinordertotaketheparkingplace.lAdrycleanermistakenlydeliversasuittothewrongcustomer.lAmechanicborrowsasportscarheissupposedtorepairwithoutpermission.lAneighborlendsherhedgetrimmertoafriend,butthefriendusesittocutdownatree.39Trespass to Chattels and ConversionGenerallThetwoconceptsarecloselyrelated.SimilaritylBothincludethewrongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferencelTheyaredifferentindegreethedamagedonetotheplaintiffspossessioninaconversioncaseismoreseverethaninatrespasscase.40Trespass to Chattels and ConversionApplicationlIngeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropriatetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.lWhentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthelostuseoftheitemandrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,instead,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.41Trespass to Chattels and ConversionExamplelDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogsuffersabrokenleg.ThiswouldbeanactionabletrespasstochattelsandMartywouldbeawardeddamagescommensuratewiththeharmdonebyDaphne.lDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogdies.Thiswouldbeanactionableconversion.Martywouldbeawardedthedogsfullvalue.42DignitaryTorts43DefamationDefinitionlthecommunicationofafalsestatementthatharmsapersonsreputationDefamatoryinformationmustbecommunicatedtoathirdperson.Typeslslanderoraldefamation(spokenstatements)llibelwrittendefamation(written,printedorbroadcastwords)44DefamationPublicfigurelawofdefamationlApublicfigurealleginglibelmustproveactualmalice.Publicfiguresvoluntarilyplacethemselvesinapositionthatinvitesclosescrutiny.Defamationper selSomecategoriesofstatementsareconsidereddefamatoryper seinjuryispresumedandneedntbeproven.45Defamationastatementthatnegativelyaffectsapersonsreputationrelatingtohisbusinessorprofessionallegationsthatapersonisunchasteallegationsthatapersonisinfectedwithasexuallytransmitteddiseaseallegationsthatapersonhascommittedacrimeofmoralturpitude(suchasrapeorincest)Defensestoclaimsofdefamationltruth46Defamationlopinionlprivilegeevidencegivenincourtstatementsmadeinasessionofthelegislature47Invasion of PrivacyDefinitionltheintrusionintothepersonallifeofanother,withoutjustcauseCategorieslintrusionofsolitudeactualphysicalorelectronicintrusionintoapersonsprivatequartersApersonwasundressingathome,andsomeonefilmedthiswithouttellingtheperson.48Invasion of PrivacylpublicdisclosureofprivatefactsthedisseminationoftruthfulprivateinformationwhichareasonablepersonwouldfindobjectionableAnunscrupulousreporterrummagedthroughapublicfiguresgarbagetofindevidenceofprescriptiondruguseorotherhighlypersonalmatters.lfalselightthepublicationoffactswhichplaceapersoninafalselight,eventhoughthefactsthemselvesmaynotbedefamatory49Invasion of PrivacyFalselightcasesareaboutdamagetoapersonspersonalfeelingsordignity,whereasdefamationisaboutdamagetoapersonsreputation.Areporterreturnedtothesceneofamassivebridgecollapseseveralyearsafterthetragedy.Thereporterattemptedtointerviewthewidowofamanwhodiedinthecrash.Thewidowandherchildrenwerenotathomesothereporterfabricatedastoryaboutthemwhichplacedtheminafalselightinthepubliceye.50Invasion of PrivacylappropriationtheunauthorizeduseofapersonsnameorlikenesstoobtainsomebenefitsAlocalrestaurantusedacelebritysnameorimageinacommercialandimpliedanofficialendorsement.51Negligence52GeneralDefinitionlconductthatbreachesastandardofcaredeemedbythelawasnecessarytoprotectothersfromunreasonablerisksofharmgenerallyexpressedasabreachofadutyElementslThedefendantowedadutyofcaretotheplaintiff;53Generallthedefendantbreachedthatduty;andlasaresultofthedefendantsbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury.54Standard of CareGenerallAllpeopleareunderadutytoconductthemselvesinsuchamannerasnottocreateunreasonablerisksofphysicalharmtoothers.lDuringatrial,theconductofthedefendantisreviewedtodetermineifheorshehasmetthereasonablepersonstandard.Wouldareasonablepersonhaveactedsimilarlyundersimilarcircumstances?55Standard of CareReasonablepersonlahypotheticalpersoninsocietywhoshowsaveragecare,skillorjudgmentinconductItisnotanaverageortypicalperson.Itisacompositeofacommunitysjudgmentastohowatypicalmemberofthatcommunityshouldbehaveinsituationsthatmightposeathreatofharmtothepublic.56Standard of CareEventhoughthemajorityofpeopleinthecommunitymaybehaveinacertainway,thatdoesnotestablishthestandardofconductofthereasonableperson.ReasonablepersonstandardlApersonhasactednegligentlyifshehasdepartedfromconductexpectedofareasonablyprudentpersonactingundersimilarcircumstances.57Standard of CareItisacompletelyobjectivetestunderwhichsubjectiveelementsarenormallynottakenintoaccount.Subjectivetraitsofthetortfeasormaybeconsidered,buttheyareconsideredaccordingtoanobjectivestandard.58CausationGenerallToestablishcausationinnegligencecasestheplaintiffmustprovethatthedefendantsactwasboththecause-in-factandtheproximatecauseofhisinjuries.Cause-in-factlThebut-fortestWouldtheplaintiffhavebeeninjuredbutfortheactofthedefendant?59CausationlThesubstantialfactortestWasthedefendantsactionasubstantialfactorincausingtheplaintiffsinjury?ProximatecauselThedirectnesstestThedefendantsactistheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjuryifthereisanunbrokensequenceofeventsbetweentheactandtheharm.lTheforeseeabilitytest60CausationItissufficientifareasonablepersonwouldhaveforeseentheharmfulresults.InterveningcauselaneventwhichoccursafterthedefendantsnegligentacthasoccurredandwhichcontributestotheinjuryIftheinterveningcausewastheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjury,thedefendantsactwillnotbeconsideredtheproximatecause.61CausationIftheinterveningcausewasforeseeable,thedefendantwilloftenbeheldliableforthisadditionalharm.62NIEDGenerallshortfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistresslacontroversialcauseofactionlavailableinnearlyallUSstatesbutseverelyconstrainedandlimitedinthemajorityofthemNIEDandIIEDlInanactionforNIEDthereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.63NIEDlAnaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.UnderlyingconceptlOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingmentaldistresstoanotherindividual.lIfonebreachesthisdutyandunreasonablycausesmentaldistresstoanotherindividual,hewillbeliablefordamagestotheinjuredindividual.64Contributory NegligenceDefinitionladefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofprooflInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceoftheplaintifforclaimant.lInothers,theburdenisontheplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.65Contributory NegligenceDisadvantagelItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.ResultlIthasbeendeletedasadefensefromthevastmajorityofstatutesandreplacedwithcomparativenegligence.66Comparative NegligenceDefinitionladefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiffsownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypeslPurecomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.67Comparative NegligencelPartialcomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.68Assumption of RiskDefinitionladefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryagainstanegligenttortfeasoriftheplaintiffvoluntarilyandknowinglyassumedtherisksinherenttotheactivityinwhichheparticipatedRationalelUponassumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.69Assumption of RisklWithoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ClassificationslExpressassumptionofriskoccurswhenaplaintiffexplicitlyagreestotakeonarisk.Thisisoftendonethroughacontract.lImpliedassumptionofriskoccurswhentheplaintiffsactionsimplythathehasconsentedtoassumetherisk.70Assumption of RiskExamplelJoebrokehisarmwhenhefellintoamanholewhilewalkingdownthestreetinatown.Theareawherethemanholewashadbeenropedoffandlargesignspostedwarningpedestrianstoavoidit.lInitsdefense,thetownmayraisethedoctrineofassumptionofrisk.71StrictLiabilityTorts72GeneralStrictliabilitylStrictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).Undercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryevenifthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.ApplicationlStrictliabilityisoftenimposedonthoseengagedinabnormallydangerousactivities.73GenerallStrictliabilityisalsoimposedonsellersandmanufacturersofproducts.74Abnormally Dangerous ActivityDefinitionlanactivitythatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinitcanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifhehastakeneveryreasonableprecautiontopreventothersfrombeinginjuredalsotermedinherentlydangerousactivityorultrahazardousactivityCategories75Abnormally Dangerous ActivitylTransportation,storage,anduseofultrahazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalslKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsthatarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknown propensityfordangerousbehavior(e.g.,adogthathasattackedpeoplebefore)76Abnormally Dangerous ActivityTheseactivitiesareallowableaslongasnoharmoccurs.ExceptionlApersonwhoisinjuredbyoneoftheseactivitieswhiletrespassingonthepropertyofthepersonengagedintheactivityisbarredfromsuingunderastrictliabilitytheory.lInstead,heorshemustprovethatthepropertyownerwasnegligent.77Product LiabilityDefinitionltheresponsibilityofamanufacturerorvendorofgoodstocompensateforinjurycausedbydefectivemerchandisethatithasprovidedforsaleProductliabilityclaimsintheUSlnegligenceclaimslstrictliabilityclaimslbreachofwarrantyclaimslvariousconsumerprotectionclaims78Product LiabilityStrictliabilityclaimslGeneralStrictliabilityisappliedcommonlytodangerouslydefectiveproducts.Themanufacturerandanysellerofaproductcanbeheldliableeveniftheyhaveexercisedallreasonablecareinproductionandsaleoftheproduct.lLimitationsItappliesonlytomerchantsellerssellerswhoregularlydealintheproduct.79Product LiabilityTheproductmustnothavebeenalteredafteritleftthesellerscontrolandmustbeusedinanormalandpropermanner.lDefenseThedefenseusuallyraisedinstrictliabilityproductscasesismisuseoftheproduct.lTheplaintiffinjuredhimselfbyusinganelectrichedgetrimmertocuthishair.Iftheparticularmisusewasaforeseeableone,thedefendantwillusuallybeliable.lstandingonachair80Nuisance81GeneralDefinitionlsomethingthatcausesoffence,damage,annoyance,orinconvenienceThelawofnuisancelThelawofnuisancewascreatedtostopsuchbothersomeactivitiesorconductwhentheyunreasonablyinterferedeitherwiththerightsofotherprivatelandownersorwiththerightsofthegeneralpublic.82GeneralUnderthecommonlaw,personsinpossessionofrealpropertyareentitledtothequietenjoymentoftheirlands.Ifaneighborinterfereswiththatquietenjoyment,theaffectedpartymaymakeaclaiminnuisance.TypeslPrivatenuisanceacivilwronglPublicnuisanceacriminalwrong83Private NuisanceDefinitionlconductthatinterfereswithapersonsuseorquietenjoymentofhislandCategorieslinterferencewiththephysicalconditionofthelanditselfvibrationorblastingthatdamagesahousethepollutionofsoil,astream,oranundergroundwatersupply84Private Nuisancelinterferencewiththehealth,comfort,orconvenienceofanoccupantfoulodorsnoxiousgasessmokedustloudnoisesexcessivelighthightemperaturesrepeatedtelephonecalls85Private NuisanceldisturbanceofanoccupantsmentaltranquilityacontagiousdiseasehospitalstoredexplosivesaviciousdogTrespassandnuisancelAtrespassinterfereswiththerighttoexclusivepossessionofland.lAnuisanceinterfereswiththeuseandenjoymentoftheland.86Private NuisanceIfalandownerdropsatreeacrossherneighborsboundarylineshehascommittedatrespass.Ifherdogbarksallnightkeepingtheneighborawake,shemaybeliablefornuisance.Remedieslmonetarydamageslinjunction
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