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PowerPowerThe ability or potential to influence others in a The ability or potential to influence others in a desired directiondesired directionPower is not inherently bad-The need to Power is not inherently bad-The need to influence and direct others is an integral influence and direct others is an integral part of managementpart of managementPower:Dependency ModelPower:Dependency ModelReciprocal dimensionsReciprocal dimensionsIndividuals cede power to the extent that Individuals cede power to the extent that they must(or perceive they must)rely on they must(or perceive they must)rely on others to accomplish tasks.others to accomplish tasks.Individuals who are relied upon accrue Individuals who are relied upon accrue power.power.Power and DependencyPower and DependencyDependency increases when:Dependency increases when:Jobs become more specializedJobs become more specializedTasks become more interdependentTasks become more interdependentAuthority is diffusedAuthority is diffusedEnvironment becomes more uncertainEnvironment becomes more uncertainTechnology increasesTechnology increasesPower:Exchange ModelPower:Exchange ModelNot merely a counteraction to dependencyNot merely a counteraction to dependencyPower is an exchange process.Part of social Power is an exchange process.Part of social interactioninteractionOrganization is run through a series of Organization is run through a series of individual negotiationsindividual negotiationsPower:Exchange ModelPower:Exchange ModelPerson 1 commands resources needed by Person 1 commands resources needed by Person 2Person 2Person 1 exchanges resources,in return Person 1 exchanges resources,in return Person 2 complies with Person 1s requestsPerson 2 complies with Person 1s requestsPower:Empowerment ModelPower:Empowerment ModelPower is not a finite resourcePower is not a finite resourceOrganizational power grows through sharing Organizational power grows through sharing it itPower:Empowerment ModelPower:Empowerment ModelEffective use of power requires training and Effective use of power requires training and experienceexperiencePower carries the concomitant need to act Power carries the concomitant need to act responsibly.responsibly.Empowerment usually fails in cases where Empowerment usually fails in cases where users have no pervious experience in its users have no pervious experience in its use.use.Power:Empowerment ModelPower:Empowerment ModelModel has grown in popularity from Model has grown in popularity from recognition that powerlessness has adverse recognition that powerlessness has adverse effects on orgs.effects on orgs.e.g.,lowered motivation and e.g.,lowered motivation and commitment commitmentPower:Empowerment ModelPower:Empowerment ModelSources of PowerlessnessSources of Powerlessness1.Organizational Culture1.Organizational Culture2.Management Style2.Management Style3.Job Design3.Job Design4.Reward Systems4.Reward SystemsLegitimacy of power People will follow direction or be persuaded People will follow direction or be persuaded through a number of causes such asthrough a number of causes such asuuFear of consequences of not obeyingFear of consequences of not obeyinguuDesire for rewardsDesire for rewardsuuNeed for resources controlled by an individualNeed for resources controlled by an individualuuBelief in the legitimacy of a persons powerBelief in the legitimacy of a persons powerFFI.e.,they wield moral authority orI.e.,they wield moral authority orFFYou believe that their direction will result in the You believe that their direction will result in the greater good for an organizationgreater good for an organizationuuLegitimacy is the most difficult way to achieve Legitimacy is the most difficult way to achieve powerpowerFFHardest to unseat once its establishedHardest to unseat once its establishedPower-sourcesPower-sourcesPeople derive power from 3 basic sources:People derive power from 3 basic sources:1.The position they hold1.The position they hold2.Their personal characteristics2.Their personal characteristics3.The resources or information they can 3.The resources or information they can access and controlaccess and controlPosition PowerPosition PowerPower that is accrued by virtue of where you Power that is accrued by virtue of where you are in the organization:are in the organization:AuthorityAuthorityLegitimate power:Legitimate power:Subordinates obey orders because they view Subordinates obey orders because they view them as legitimate due to the position that a them as legitimate due to the position that a manager holds in the organization.manager holds in the organization.Position Power contdPosition Power contdControl of rewards and punishments:Control of rewards and punishments:“Stick and carrot”power.May also be“Stick and carrot”power.May also be coercive power.coercive power.Centrality:Centrality:The degree to which a position is linked to The degree to which a position is linked to and important to the activities of other and important to the activities of other individuals and subunits.individuals and subunits.Personal PowerPersonal PowerBased on individual knowledge and ability or Based on individual knowledge and ability or personal influence over other individuals.personal influence over other individuals.Expertise:Expertise:Based on unique or special knowledge.Based on unique or special knowledge.Personal PowerPersonal PowerCharisma/Referent:Charisma/Referent:Personal charm and persuasiveness.Personal charm and persuasiveness.Referent-person is attached to or identifies Referent-person is attached to or identifies with an individual and therefore can be with an individual and therefore can be influencedinfluencedIndividuals with charisma often develop Individuals with charisma often develop referent power because they attract others referent power because they attract others to follow.to follow.Personal PowerPersonal PowerCoercionCoercionPower exercised through fear of adverse Power exercised through fear of adverse consequencesconsequencesMy have adverse consequences such as My have adverse consequences such as stress,turnover and anxietystress,turnover and anxietyResource and Information Based Resource and Information Based PowerPowerControl of Scarce Resources:Control of Scarce Resources:Largely self-explanatory,but be sure you Largely self-explanatory,but be sure you understand what resources are integral to understand what resources are integral to your job.Not always obvious:e.g.,keys to your job.Not always obvious:e.g.,keys to rooms,projectors etc.rooms,projectors etc.Resource and Information Based Resource and Information Based PowerPowerControl of resources can also include an Control of resources can also include an individual/units ability to bring in resources individual/units ability to bring in resources from outside the organization.from outside the organization.e.g.,Successful grant writers often exert e.g.,Successful grant writers often exert power beyond what may appear from their power beyond what may appear from their position in an organization.position in an organization.Resource and Information Based Resource and Information Based PowerPowerIndividuals or groups may themselves be Individuals or groups may themselves be scarce resources.scarce resources.Unsubstitutability:Unsubstitutability:How hard is it for any other group or individual How hard is it for any other group or individual to perform certain tasks?How integral are to perform certain tasks?How integral are these tasks to the organization?these tasks to the organization?UnsubstitutabilityUnsubstitutabilityIndividuals or groups often create these Individuals or groups often create these situations by performing duties,but not situations by performing duties,but not explaining how theyre done.explaining how theyre done.Often discussed in computer centers in the Often discussed in computer centers in the debate over service provision versus end-debate over service provision versus end-user training.user training.Information is a resourceInformation is a resourcePeople who command information also People who command information also command mand power.Maximally useful in:Maximally useful in:Situations of UncertaintySituations of UncertaintyIndividuals dislike uncertainty and individuals Individuals dislike uncertainty and individuals who can relieve this uncertainty acquire who can relieve this uncertainty acquire powerpower(Dependency Relationship)(Dependency Relationship)Conflict and NegotiationConflict and NegotiationConflict:Conflict:“the process which begins when one party“the process which begins when one party perceives that the other has frustrated or is perceives that the other has frustrated or is about to frustrate some concern of his or about to frustrate some concern of his or hers.”hers.”Conflict and NegotiationConflict and NegotiationIn general,the likelihood of conflict increases In general,the likelihood of conflict increases when:when:a.a.Parties interactParties interactb.b.View their differences as incompatibleView their differences as incompatiblec.c.See conflict as a constructive way of See conflict as a constructive way of resolving disagreementsresolving disagreementsConflict occurs when:Conflict occurs when:More specifically,conflict occurs when:More specifically,conflict occurs when:1.Mutually exclusive goals or values exist in 1.Mutually exclusive goals or values exist in fact,or are perceived to exist,by the groups fact,or are perceived to exist,by the groups involved.involved.2.Interaction is characterized by behavior 2.Interaction is characterized by behavior designed to defeat,reduce,or suppress the designed to defeat,reduce,or suppress the opponent,or to gain a mutually designated opponent,or to gain a mutually designated victoryvictoryConflict occurs when:Conflict occurs when:3.3.The groups face each other with mutually The groups face each other with mutually opposing actions and counteractions.opposing actions and counteractions.4.Each group attempts to create a relatively 4.Each group attempts to create a relatively favored position in relation to the other.favored position in relation to the other.Conflict is not inherently bad:Conflict is not inherently bad:Positive outcomes:Positive outcomes:Better ideas/decisionsBetter ideas/decisionsNew approaches to solve problemsNew approaches to solve problemsSurfacing and then resolving of long-standing Surfacing and then resolving of long-standing problemsproblemsClarification of individual viewsClarification of individual viewsIncreased interest and creativityIncreased interest and creativityNegative outcomes of conflictNegative outcomes of conflictNegative outcomes:Negative outcomes:Increased distance between peopleIncreased distance between peopleClimate of mistrust and suspicionClimate of mistrust and suspicionResistance rather than teamworkResistance rather than teamworkIncreased turnoverIncreased turnoverFeelings of defeat/humiliationFeelings of defeat/humiliationPerception and conflictPerceptions play a large role in conflicts.Perceptions play a large role in conflicts.Individuals may frame their perceptions Individuals may frame their perceptions along 3 dimensions:along 3 dimensions:a.Relationship/Taska.Relationship/Taskb.Emotional/Intellectualb.Emotional/Intellectualc.Cooperate/Winc.Cooperate/WinHow individuals or groups handle conflict often How individuals or groups handle conflict often depends on how they frame it in each depends on how they frame it in each dimensiondimensionWhether the outcome of conflict is good or bad depends on a variety of factors:1.1.Sociocultural Sociocultural contextcontext2.2.Issues involvedIssues involved3.3.Cognitive frame Cognitive frame 4.4.i.e.,competitive outlooks are less likely i.e.,competitive outlooks are less likely to seek a to seek a compromise or functional compromise or functional outcomeoutcome5.5.4.4.Characteristics of the participantsCharacteristics of the participants6.6.knowledge,experienceknowledge,experience,personal style,personal style influence influence outcomesoutcomes7.7.5.5.Misjudgments and MisperceptionsMisjudgments and MisperceptionsStages of ConflictConflict changes over timeConflict changes over time1.Latent1.LatentConditions for conflict existConditions for conflict existfoundations for disagreementfoundations for disagreement2.Perceived2.PerceivedDifferences are made publicDifferences are made public3.Felt3.FeltInvolved parties begin to feel tense as Involved parties begin to feel tense as the result of conflictthe result of conflicti.e.,the conflict becomes personali.e.,the conflict becomes personalStages of Conflict4.4.Manifest conflictManifest conflictObservable behavior emerges that is Observable behavior emerges that is designed to pursue one partys goals designed to pursue one partys goals or or frustrate anothers.frustrate anothers.5.Conflict aftermath5.Conflict aftermathConflict ResolutionConflict ResolutionBasic paradigms of negotiation:Basic paradigms of negotiation:Distributive bargainingDistributive bargainingIntegrative bargainingIntegrative bargainingConflict ResolutionConflict ResolutionDistributive-Distributive-Classic view.Adversarial roles.One partys Classic view.Adversarial roles.One partys claim is another partys loss.Offer/Counter-claim is another partys loss.Offer/Counter-offer strategy.offer strategy.Power is of paramount importance.Power is of paramount importance.Conflict ResolutionConflict ResolutionIntegrative-Integrative-Transform the process into a mutually Transform the process into a mutually advantageous one.advantageous one.Problem solving rather than win-lose Problem solving rather than win-lose approach.approach.Conflict resolution stylesConflict resolution styles1.1.CompetingCompetingsatisfying your concerns but not the other partyssatisfying your concerns but not the other partysWorks well in:Works well in:emergenciesemergenciesunpopular decisionsunpopular decisionsone party is absolutely correctone party is absolutely correctone party has significantly more powerone party has significantly more power Conflict resolution stylesConflict resolution styles2.2.CollaborationCollaborationproblem solving with the aim of problem solving with the aim of maximizing maximizing satisfaction to all parties satisfaction to all parties(integrated solution)(integrated solution)working together to achieve working together to achieve common goalscommon goalsWorks well when:Works well when:B Both sets of goals are too important to oth sets of goals are too important to compromisecompromiseFeelings have interfered with a relationshipFeelings have interfered with a relationshipConflict resolution stylesConflict resolution styles3.3.CompromiseCompromiseSharing positions,but not moving to Sharing positions,but not moving to extremes of assertiveness or cooperationextremes of assertiveness or cooperationWorks well when:Works well when:B Both sets of goals are important but enough oth sets of goals are important but enough so to so to make either party assertivemake either party assertiveParties have equal powerParties have equal powerTime pressures are significantTime pressures are significantConflict resolution stylesConflict resolution styles4.4.AvoidanceAvoidanceWithdrawing or avoiding the conflictWithdrawing or avoiding the conflictSatisfy neither their own nor the other partys Satisfy neither their own nor the other partys concernsconcernsWorks well when:Works well when:Issues are trivialIssues are trivialIndividuals have little chance of satisfying Individuals have little chance of satisfying their their goalsgoalsResolving the conflict will result in significant Resolving the conflict will result in significant disruptiondisruptionConflict resolution stylesConflict resolution styles5.5.AccommodationAccommodationOne party satisfies the others concerns One party satisfies the others concerns without addressing their ownwithout addressing their ownWorks well when:Works well when:One party realizes they are wrongOne party realizes they are wrongIssues are more important to others than Issues are more important to others than yourselfyourselfBuilding social credits for later use is Building social credits for later use is importantimportantHarmony&stability are importantHarmony&stability are importantSubordinates need to learn from their Subordinates need to learn from their mistakesmistakesConflict resolution-A few practical Conflict resolution-A few practical pointspointsLook for points of agreementLook for points of agreementDont argue over areas where you agree Dont argue over areas where you agree Conflict resolution-Formal Conflict resolution-Formal MethodsMethodsI.Grievance ProceduresI.Grievance ProceduresFormal process by which workers complain to Formal process by which workers complain to management in cases where they feel management in cases where they feel mistreated or their rights were violated.mistreated or their rights were violated.Grievance ProceduresGrievance ProceduresProvides a mechanism to:Provides a mechanism to:1.respond to workers complaints1.respond to workers complaints2.clarify workers and employers rights2.clarify workers and employers rights3.formally bring a complaint to the attention 3.formally bring a complaint to the attention of of management(and or union officials)management(and or union officials)4.define a complaint4.define a complaint5.structure a meeting between parties5.structure a meeting between partiesConflict ResolutionConflict ResolutionII.Mediation and ArbitrationII.Mediation and ArbitrationThird-party interventions with trained Third-party interventions with trained intermediaries.intermediaries.Mediator-facilitates communication and Mediator-facilitates communication and resolution between two or more parties.resolution between two or more parties.Arbitrator-acts as judge and makes a Arbitrator-acts as judge and makes a decision on an issue.decision on an issue.Mediation and ArbitrationMediation and ArbitrationBasic negotiation paradigms are differentBasic negotiation paradigms are differentArbitration-trying to convince a judge that Arbitration-trying to convince a judge that your side is the right oneyour side is the right oneMediation-Trying to reach a mutual point of Mediation-Trying to reach a mutual point of agreementagreementTechniques for more successful Techniques for more successful negotiationsnegotiations1.1.PreparePrepareUnderstand the problem thoroughlyUnderstand the problem thoroughlyUnderstand the other side thoroughlyUnderstand the other side thoroughlyNegotiation techniquesNegotiation techniques2.2.Evaluate AlternativesEvaluate AlternativesWhat can you live with?What can you live with?What do you ideally want?What do you ideally want?What cant you live with?What cant you live with?Understand what you can and cant bargain Understand what you can and cant bargain over.over.Negotiation techniquesNegotiation techniques3.3.What are the actual interests of both What are the actual interests of both parties?parties?You know what theyre asking for,but what You know what theyre asking for,but what do do they really want?they really want?What alternatives can we come up with that What alternatives can we come up with that will accommodate both parties?will accommodate both parties?What are your shared interests?What are your shared interests?What can we do that will benefit both partiesWhat can we do that will benefit both parties?Questions to encourage Questions to encourage reasonable settlements.reasonable settlements.1.1.What do you want to accomplish today?What do you want to accomplish today?2.What are the risks of following a present 2.What are the risks of following a present course of action?course of action?3.What are the realistic alternatives to 3.What are the realistic alternatives to settlement?settlement?Questions to encourage Questions to encourage reasonable settlements.reasonable settlements.4.4.Is the offer you are
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