二语习得-20课件

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchxxWewilllimitourselvestothepost-warperiod,whichhasseenthedevelopmentoftheorizingaboutsecondlanguagelearningfromanadjuncttolanguagepedagogy,toan autonomousfieldofresearch.Theperiodsincethe1950scanitselfbedividedintothreemainphases.1.1950-19602.19703.1980-199030 xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL1II.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchWewillstartwiththe1950sand1960sandashortdescriptionofhowsecondlanguageswerebelievedtobelearntatthetime.WewillthendescribetheimpactoftheChomskyanrevolutioninlinguisticsonthefieldoflanguageacquisition,initiallyonthestudyoffirstlanguageacquisition,andsubsequentlythatofsecondlanguageacquisition.30+II.TheRecentHistoryofSeco2TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwChomskyan Revolutionw以转换生成语法著称的乔式语言结构理论。1957年因他的句法结构的发表而使语言学研究革命化。到60年代中期，Chomsky开始强调语言对研究人类心灵所起的关键作用。他认为语言学应视为认知心理学的一个分支，这一观点主要在语言与心理中作了论证。正是他思想的这一方面广泛吸引了语言学以外的学者，特别是在哲学界和心理学界。w31TheRecentHistoryofSecondL3TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwTGGrammar(transformational-generativegrammar)wAtheoryofgrammarwhichwasproposedbytheChomskyin1957.Ithassincebeendevelopedbyhimandmanyotherlinguists.Chomskyattemptedtoprovideamodelforthedescriptionofalllanguages.ATGgrammartriestoshow,withasystemofrules,theknowledgewhichanativespeakerofalanguageusesinforminggrammaticalsentences.w转换生成语法试图用一套规则把操本族语者用以产生合乎语法的句子的知识显示出来.32TheRecentHistoryofSecondL4S NP VPDETNV NP ThepoliceraisehisrevolverNDETSNPVPDETNVN5TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchw1.The1950sand1960swInthe1950sandearly1960s,theorizingaboutlanguagelearningwasstillverymuchanadjuncttothepracticalbusinessoflanguageteaching.However,theideathatlanguageteachingmethodshadtobejustifiedintermsofandunderlyinglearningtheorywaswellestablished.Atthattimethegenerallearningtheorydominantinmainstreampsychologywas behaviorism.wTheRecentHistoryofSecondL6TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwBehaviorismwAtheoryofpsychologywhichstatesthathumanandanimalbehaviorcanandshouldbestudiedintermsofphysicalprocessesonly(includinglanguage)Itledtotheoriesoflearningwhichexplainedhowanexternalevent(astimulus)causedachangeinthebehaviorofanindividual(aresponse)withoutusingconceptslike“mind”or“ideas”,oranykindofmentalbehavior.34+TheRecentHistoryofSecondL7TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchw行为主义是心理学的一个理论，说明人和动物的行为只能且必须从生理过程的角度来研究，受它影响而产生的学习理论解释了人是如何受外部事件（刺激）的影响产生行为变化（反应）而不需要“意向”或“意念”或任何内心行为等概念。35TheRecentHistoryofSecondL8TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwBehaviorism in LinguisticswInthebehavioristview,languageleaningisseenlikeanyotherkindofleaning,asthe formation of habits.Itstemsfromworkinpsychologywhichsawthelearningofanykindofbehaviorasbeingbasedonthenotionsofstimulus and response.Thisviewseeshumanbeingsasbeingexposedtonumerousstimuliintheirenvironment.Theresponsetheygivetosuchstimuliwillbereinforcedifsuccessful,thatisifsomedesiredoutcomeisobtained.Throughrepeatedreinforcement,acertainstimuluswillelicitthesameresponsetimeandagain,whichwillthenbecomeahabit.Thelearningofanyskillisastheformationofhabits,thatisthecreationofstimulus-responsepairingswhichbecomestrongerwithreinforcement.w36xxe.g.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL9TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwxxFromateachingpointofview,theimplicationsofthisapproachweretwofold.First,itwasstronglybelievethatpracticemakesperfect;inotherwords,learningwouldtakeplacebyimitatingandrepeatingthesamestructurestimeaftertime.Second,teachersneededtofocustheirteachingonstructureswhichwerebelievedtobedifficult,andaswesawabove,difficultstructureswouldbethosethatweredifferentintheL1andtheL2.w37TheRecentHistoryofSecondL10TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwExamples:w（与L1不同之处，是L2学习的困难之处）w1.HestudiesEnglishw2.HedoesnotstudyEnglish.w3.DoeshestudyEnglish?w4.Whatdoeshestudy?ww37+TheRecentHistoryofSecondL11TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwThelogicaloutcomeofsuchbelievesaboutthelearningprocesswasthateffectiveteachingwouldconcentrateonareasofdifference,andthatthebestpedagogicaltoolforforeignlanguageteachersthereforeasoundknowledgeofthoseareas.38TheRecentHistoryofSecondL12TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwResearchersembarkedonthehugetaskofcomparingpairsoflanguagesinordertopinpointareasofdifference,thereforeofdifficulty.ThiswastermedContrastive Analysis.38+TheRecentHistoryofSecondL13TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwCA:thecomparisonofthelinguisticsystemsoftwolanguages,forexamplethesoundsystemorthegrammaticalsystem.Contrastiveanalysiswasdevelopedandpracticedinthe1950sand1960s,asanapplicationofstructurallinguistics(basedonthetheoryofbehaviorism)tolanguageteaching,andisbasedonthefollowingassumptions:wa.themaindifficultiesinlearninganewlanguagearewcausedbyinterferencefromthefirstlanguagewb.thesedifficultiescanbepredictedbycontrastivewanalysis.39wTheRecentHistoryofSecondL14TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwc.teachingmaterialscanmakeuseofcontrastiveanalysiswtoreducetheeffectsofinterferencewContrastiveanalysiswasmoresuccessfulinphonologythaninotherareasoflanguage,anddeclinedinthe1970sasinterferencewasreplacedbyotherexplanationsoflearningdifficulties.Inrecentyears,contrastiveanalysishasbeenappliedtootherareasoflanguage,forexamplethediscoursesystems.w 40TheRecentHistoryofSecondL15TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwCA:a.对比分析学习一门新的语言，其主要困难来自第一语言的干扰b.困难可以通过对比分析来预测c.运用对比分析来编写教材，可以减少干扰的影响。到了70年代ErrorAnalysis取而代之。w41TheRecentHistoryofSecondL16TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch Behaviorism under AttackwStartinginthe1950sandcontinuing1960s,boththefieldsoflinguisticsandofpsychologywitnessedmajordevelopments.Linguisticssawashiftfromstructurallinguistics（basedonbehaviorism）,whichwasbasedonthedescriptionofthesurfacestructureofalargecorpusoflanguage,togenerativelinguistics（havingtheabilitytocreatesentencesbyusingapersonsinnatelanguageability,notlearnfromothers,producingsentencesbyoneself）whichemphasizedtherule-governedandcreativenatureofhumanlanguage.ThisshifthadbeeninitiatedbythepublicationofSyntacticStructures,thefirstofmanyinfluentialbooksbyNoamChomsky.43TheRecentHistoryofSecondL17TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwStructuralist linguisticsw结构语言学用来指任何一种注重用结构和系统明确描写语言特征的语言分析法。一般的索绪尔式的结构主义思想已溶入语言学的每一个学派。但是结构主义还有一个较狭窄的定义，指的是布龙菲尔德式的方法，即强调话段（即乔姆斯基后来称作表层结构的）有形特征的切分和分类程序，不怎麽考虑语言抽象的底层结构（乔姆斯基的深层结构）。正是这种强调遭到乔姆斯基式语言理论的强烈批评；因此对生成语言学而言，这个名词常带有贬意。44TheRecentHistoryofSecondL18TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwStructuralist linguisticswAnapproachtolinguisticswhichstressestheimportanceoflanguageasasystemandwhichinvestigatestheplacethatlinguisticunitssuchassounds,words,sentenceshavewithinthissystem.w结构语言学强调把语言作为一个系统来研究的重要性结构语言学强调把语言作为一个系统来研究的重要性,并研究语并研究语音音,单词单词,句子等语言单位在这个系统中的地位句子等语言单位在这个系统中的地位.wStructuralistlinguisticsisoftenusedtorefertoagroupofAmericanlinguistssuchasBloomfieldandFrics,whopublishedmainlyinthe1930sato1950s.Theworkoftheselinguistswasbasedonthetheoryofbehaviorismandhadaconsiderableinfluenceonsomelanguageteachingmethods.(Audiolingualmethodisbasedonbehaviorism;languageislearnedthroughforminghabits)语言通过形成习惯而习得.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL19TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwStructurallinguisticswasestablishedtofocusonlanguagestructures,primarilythosewhicharedifferentfromthoseintypicalIndo-Europeanlanguages.wStructurallinguisticswouldemphasizethatasentencehaveanounandverbinagreement,whiletraditionally,asentenceneedstobeacompletethought.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL20TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwStructurallinguistsalsobelievedthatthelinguisticbehaviorsofthemembersofaspeechcommunitywerebasedonorderlystructuresthateachmemberofthecommunityshared.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL21TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwStructurallinguisticshasbeenprovenveryusefulintheanalysisoftheprocessoflinguisticbehavior.Wenowhaveabetterwayoflearninghowpeopleacquirelanguageandalsohowspeakerscommunicatemeaningtotheirlisteners.ThistypeofinformationisusefultoteachersofEnglishasafirstorasecondlanguageandsimilarteachersoflanguagearoundtheworld.Itisalsousefulinunderstandingthewaythatdifferentculturescommunicatetheirintentionstoeachother,aswellascommunicationwhichoccurswithinasingleculture.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL22TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwInthefieldofpsychology,thepre-eminentrolefortheenvironmentwhichwasarguedbySkinnerinshapingthechildslearningandbehaviorwaslosinggroundinfavorofmoredevelopmentalistviewsoflearning,suchasPiagets(皮亚杰)cognitivedevelopmentaltheory,inwhichinnerforcesdrivethechild,ininteractionwiththeenvironment.w45TheRecentHistoryofSecondL23TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwJeanPiaget,thepioneeringSwissphilosopherandpsychologist,spentmuchofhisprofessionallifelisteningtochildren,watchingchildrenandporingoverreportsofresearchersaroundtheworldwhoweredoingthesame.Hefound,toputitmostsuccinctly,thatchildrendontthinklikegrownups.Afterthousandsofinteractionswithyoungpeopleoftenbarelyoldenoughtotalk,Piagetbegantosuspectthatbehindtheircuteandseeminglyillogicalutteranceswerethoughtprocessesthathadtheirownkindoforderandtheirownspeciallogic.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL24TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwHisresearchesindevelopmentalpsychologyandgeneticepistemologyhadoneuniquegoal:howdoesknowledgegrow?Hisansweristhatthegrowthofknowledgeisaprogressiveconstructionoflogicallyembeddedstructuressupersedingoneanotherbyaprocessofinclusionoflowerlesspowerfullogicalmeansintohigherandmorepowerfulonesuptoadulthood.Therefore,childrenslogicandmodesofthinkingareinitiallyentirelydifferentfromthoseofadults.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL25TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwPiagets Genetic epistemology 发生认知论发生认知论wAtermusedtodescribethetheoriesofdevelopmentalpsychologyoftheSwisspsychologistJeanPiaget(1896-1980).Helistedseveraldifferentstageswhichchildrenpassthroughinmentaldevelopment.Thefirststageisthesensorimotorstage(感觉运动期)，frombirthtoabout24months.Itlastsfrombirthtoabouttwoyearsold.Asthenameimplies,theinfantusessensesandmotorabilitiestounderstandtheworld,beginningwithreflexesandendingwithcomplexcombinationsofsensorimotorskills.Theycanusemental combinationstosolvesimpleproblems,suchasputtingdownatoyinordertoopenadoor.Andtheygetgoodatpretending.Insteadofusingdolliesessentiallyassomethingtositat,suckon,orthrow,nowthechildwillsingtoit,tuckitintobed,andsoon.46TheRecentHistoryofSecondL26TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwThenextthreestagesareamovementtowardsmoreabstractprocesses.Duringthepre-operationalstage(前运思期),fromabouttwotosevenyears.Thechildhasmentalrepresentationsandisabletopretend,itisashortsteptotheuseofsymbols.Asymbolisathingthatrepresentssomethingelse.Adrawing,awrittenword,oraspokenwordcomestobeunderstoodasrepresentingarealdog.Theuseoflanguageis,ofcourse,theprimeexample,butanothergoodexampleofsymboluseiscreativeplay,whereincheckersarecookies,papersaredishes,aboxisthetable,andsoon.Bymanipulatingsymbols,weareessentiallythinking,inawaytheinfantcouldnot:intheabsenceoftheactualobjectsinvolved!47TheRecentHistoryofSecondL27TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwTheconcreteoperationalstage（具体运思期)fromaboutseventoelevenyearsistheperiodwhenchildrenbegintousementaloperationsandacquireanumberofconceptsofconservation.Thewordoperationsreferstologicaloperationsorprinciplesweusewhensolvingproblems.Inthisstage,thechildnotonlyusessymbolsrepresentationally,butcanmanipulatethosesymbolslogically.Quiteanaccomplishment!But,atthispoint,theymuststillperformtheseoperationswithinthecontextofconcretesituations.wTheyoungerchildmaystartputtingthingsinorderby,saysize,butwillquicklylosetrack.Nowthechildhasnoproblemwithsuchatask.Sincearithmeticisessentiallynothingmorethanclassificationandseriation,thechildisnowreadyforsomeformaleducation!TheRecentHistoryofSecondL28TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwDuringtheformaloperationalstage（正式运思期）,fromaboutelevenonwards,childrenareableodealwithabstractconceptsandpropositions,andtomakehypotheses,inferences,anddeductions.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL29TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwTheconcreteoperationschildhasahardtimeapplyinghisnew-foundlogicalabilitiestonon-concrete-i.e.abstract-events.Ifmomsaystojunior“Youshouldntmakefunofthatboysnose.Howwouldyoufeelifsomeonedidthattoyou?”Heislikelytorespond“Idonthaveabignose!”Eventhissimplelessonmaywellbetooabstract,toohypothetical,forhiskindofthinking.wFromaround12on,weentertheformaloperationsstage.Herewebecomeincreasinglycompetentatadult-stylethinking.Thisinvolvesusinglogicaloperations,andusingthemintheabstract,ratherthantheconcrete.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL30TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwPiagetsGeneticepistemology发生认知论w1.birth2sensorimotorstage(感觉运动期)w2.27pre-operationalstage(前运思期)w3.711concreteoperationalstage(具体运思期)w4.11-formaloperationalstage(正式运思期)TheRecentHistoryofSecondL31TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwTheclashofviewsaboutthewayinwhichwelearnlanguagecametoaheadattheendofthe1950swithtwopublications.ThesewereSkinnersVerbalBehaviorin1957whichoutlinedindetailhisbehavioristviewoflearningasappliedtolanguage,andChomskysreviewofSkinnersbook,publishedin1959,whichwasafiercecritiqueofSkinnersviews.48TheRecentHistoryofSecondL32TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwChomskyscriticismscenteredonanumberofissues.w1.Thecreativityoflanguage:childrendonotlearnandreproducealargesetofsentences,buttheyroutinelycreatenewsentencesthattheyhaveneverlearntbefore.Thisisonlypossiblebecausetheyinternalizerulesratherthanstringsofwords;extremelycommonexamplesofutterancessuchasitbreakedorMummygoedshowclearlythatchildrenarenotcopyingthelanguagearoundthembutapplyrules.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL33TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwChomskywasincensedbytheideathatyoucouldcomparethebehaviorofratsinalab,learningtoperformsimpletasks,tothebehaviorofchildrenlearninglanguagewithoutdirectteaching,afundamentallydifferenttaskbecauseofitssheercomplexityandabstractness.49TheRecentHistoryofSecondL34TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchw2.Giventhecomplexityandabstractnessoflinguisticrules(forexample,therulesunderlyingtheuseofreflexivepronounsinEnglish),itisamazingthatchildrenareabletomasterthemsoquicklyandefficiently,especiallygiventhelimitedinputtheyreceive.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL35TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwFurthermore,childrenhavebeenshownnottobeusuallycorrectedontheformoftheirutterancesbutratherontheirtruthvalues.Thencorrectiondoestakeplace,itseemstohaveverylittleeffectonthedevelopmentoflanguagestructure.50 exTheRecentHistoryofSecondL36TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchw2.The 1970swIn the 1970s researchersfoundstrikingsimilaritiesinthelanguagelearningbehaviorofyoungchildren,whateverthelanguagetheywerelearning,itseemsthatchildrenallovertheworldgothroughsimilarstages,usesimilarconstructionsinordertoexpresssimilarmeanings,andmakethesamekindsoferrors.Thestagescanbesummarizedasfollows:wLanguagestageBeginningagewCryingBirthwCooing6weeks51TheRecentHistoryofSecondL37TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwBabbling6monthswIntonationpatterns8monthswOne-wordutterances1year*wTwo-wordutterance18monthswWordinflections2yearswQuestions,negatives2years3monthswRareorcomplexconstructions5yearswMaturespeech10years52xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL38TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwRogerBrownsso-calledmorphemestudyisprobablythebest-knownL1studyofthattime,andwastobeveryinfluentialforsecondlanguageacquisitionresearch.Inanin-depthstudyofthreechildrenofdifferentbackgrounds,hecomparedthedevelopmentoffourteengrammaticalmorphemesinEnglish.Hefoundthatalthoughtherateatwhichchildrenlearntthesemorphemesvaried,theorderinwhichtheyacquiredthemremainedthesameforallchildren,aslistedbelowinasimplifiedform.w53TheRecentHistoryofSecondL39TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwPresentprogressiveboysingingwPrepositionsdollyincarwPluralsweetieswPastirregularbrokewPossessivebabysbiscuitwArticlesacarwPastregularwantedw3rdpersonsingulareatswAuxiliarybeHeisrunning.54TheRecentHistoryofSecondL40TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwWhatisstrikingisthat,notonlydochildrenacquireanumberofgrammaticalmorphemesinafixedorder,buttheyalsofollowfairlyrigidstagesduringtheacquisitionofagivenareaofgrammar.(Ellis)55xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL41TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwStage 1:Negativeutterancesconsistofanucleus(i.e.thepositiveproposition)eitherprecededorfollowedbyanegator.wwearmittennownotateddybearwStage 2.Negatorsarenowincorporatedintoaffirmativeclauses.Negatorsatthisstageincludedontandcant,usedasunitaryitems.Negativecommandsappear:wThesenosquirrelswYoucantdancewDontbitemeyetwStage 3:Nagatorsarenowalwaysincorporatedintoaffirmativeclauses.TheAuxiliary+notrulehasbeenacquired,asdont,cantetc.arenowanalyzed.Butsomemistakesstilloccur(e.g.copulabeisomittedfromnegativeutterancesanddoublenegativesoccur).wIdonthaveabookIdonthavenomoney.wPaulcanthaveoneTherearentnomistakesinmyhomework.wInotcryingwNoonedidntcome56xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL42TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwThefactthatchildrendonotseemtocorrecttheirerrorsonthebasisofadultovertorimpliedcorrectionofchildrensutterancesiswelldocumentedinthefirstlanguageacquisitionliterature.Thefollowingdialogueistypicaloftheuselessnessofsuchattempts.ThepsycholinguistMartinBraineoncetriedforseveralweekstostampoutoneofhisdaughtersgrammaticalerrors.Hereistheresult:57TheRecentHistoryofSecondL43TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwChild:Wantotheronespoon,DaddywFather:Youmean,youwantTHEOTHERSPOONwChild:Yes,Iwantotheronespoon,please,DaddywFather:Canyousaytheotherspoon?wChild:OtheronespoonwFather:SayotherwChild:OtherwFather:SpoonwChild:SpoonwFather:OtherspoonwChild:Otherspoon.Nowgivemeotheronespoon?w58xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL44TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwFrom this necessarily brief and oversimplified account of 1970sfirst language acquisition research,the following characteristics emerge.w1.Childrengothroughstages.w2.Thesestagesareverysimilaracrosschildrenforawgivenlanguage,althoughtherateatwhichindividualwchildrenprogressthroughthemishighlyvariable.w3.Thesestagesaresimilaracrosslanguages.TheRecentHistoryofSecondL45TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchw4.Childlanguageisrule-governedandwsystematic,andtherulescreatedbythechildwdonotnecessarilycorrespondtoadultones.w5.Childrenareresistanttocorrection.w6.Childrensprocessingcapacitylimitsthewnumberofrulestheycanapplyatanyonewtime,andtheywillreverttoearlierhypotheseswwhentwoormorerulescompete.59xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL46TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwThe birth of error analysis:wTeacherswerefindingoutintheclassroomthatconstructionsthatweredifferentinpairsoflanguageswerenotnecessarilydifficult,andthatconstructionsthatweresimilarintwolanguageswerenotnecessarilyeasyeither.wExample:Hedidnotcameat2:00pm.wIgoingtoseeafilmthisafternoon.60 xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondL47TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwError analysiswThestudyandanalysisoftheERRORSmadebysecondlanguagelearners.Erroranalysismaybecarriedoutinordertowa.identifystrategieswhichlearnersuseinlanguagewlearningwb.trytoidentifythecausesoflearnererrorswc.obtaininformationoncommondifficultiesinlanguagewlearning,asanaidtoteachingorinthepreparationofwteachingmaterials.42xx3 TheRecentHistoryofSecondL48TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchAbasicdistinctionwasdrawnbetweenintralingualandinterlingualerrors.intralingual munication-basederrors5.inducederrors6.errorsofavoidance42+xx4TheRecentHistoryofSecondL49TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchwInareviewofstudieslookingattheproportionoferrorsthatcanbetracedbacktothefirstlanguage,Ellisfoundthattherewasconsiderablevariationinthefindings,withresultsrangingfrom3percentoferrorsattributedtotheL1,to51percent,withmajorityofstudiesfindingaroundathirdofallerrorstraceabletotheL1.ErrorAnalysisthusshowedclearlythatthemajorityoftheerrorsmadebysecondlanguagelearnersdonotcomefromtheirfirstlanguage.w61