资源描述
Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis 语篇分析 1 Major contents 1.Discourse and discourse analysis 2.Information structure 3. Cohesion and coherence 4.Discourse markers 5.Conversational analysis 6. Critical analysis 2 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis Discourse Language above the sentence or above the clause. (Stubbs,1983:1) Text linguistics/ discourse analysis written spoken Used interchangeably now 3 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis Discourse linguistics/ discourse studies/ text analysis The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. p168 4 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis Language in use Pragmatics: meaning Discourse analysis: information structure Most powerful instrument: Functional Systemic Grammar 5 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis Fertilizers put back what the rain and plants take away. Plastic pots are not just substitutes for clay ones. Pears are a little more temperamental than apples. Supporting and training are not quite the same thing. 6 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis Pick up a handful of soil in your garden. Ordinary, unexciting earth. Yet it is one of Natures miracles, and one of her most complex products. Your success as a gardener will largely depend upon its condition, so take the first bold step in gardening - get to know your soil. 7 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis A primary task of DA is to explore the linguistic features which characterize discourse. The goal of DA is to examine how reader or user of a discourse recognizes that parts of a discourse are dependent on others. One of the most important features of discourse is cohesion (衔接 ) 8 1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis Topics of DA: Information structure(信息结构 ) Cohesion(衔接 ) Coherence(连贯 ) Discourse makers(话语标记语 ) Conversational analysis(会话分析 ) 9 2 Information Structure How do language users arrange information within discourse? 2.1 Given and new information Alice: Who ate the bread? Tom : Mary ate the bread. Given information: known to the addressee New information: unknown to the addressee. 10 2.1 Given and new information Given information can be introduced by one speaker alone: A man called while you were on your break. He said hed call back later. Given information can be something closely related to the mentioned information (e.g. meronymy) （部分 -整体关系） Kent returned my car last night after borrowing it for the day. One of the wheels was about to fall off and the dashboard was missing. 11 2.1 Given and new information Forms of N/G information: New-information carriers usually receive more stress, and they are commonly more elaborated, e.g. with a full noun phrase, relative clause or adjectival modifier(s). E.g. When I entered the room, there was a tall man with an old-fashioned hat on, quite elegantly dressed. 12 2.1 Given and new information Given information is expressed in shorter forms (pronouns/ unstressed noun phrase/omitted): A: Who ate the apple? B: Mary did./ Mary. 13 2.2 Topic and comment 话题和述题 Topic话题 : what the utterance is about. Comment述题 : what is said about the topic. Topic is the element of a sentence that functions as the center of attention. Topic is usually the subject, noun phrase. Mary ate the bread. 14 2.2 Topic and comment Other elements can take the role too. After tea, will you tell me a story. Mark the topic Place topic in the initial position in English. A beautiful dress she did make. Topic is not necessarily a property of the sentence; it may be a property of the discourse context: Oh, look! 15 2.2 Topic and comment Topic-comment vs. given-new information Given-new information: the point of view of the listener. Topic-comment relates to that of the speaker. The given element is that which the speaker presents as already being known to the listener. The topic element represents what the utterance is about. 16 2.2 Topic and comment Given information is not always the topic. Mary ate the bread. As for her little sister, she drank the Coca-Cola. new/ topic Peter didnt believe anything the charlatan said. As for Mary, she believed everything he said. given/ comment 17 2.2 Topic and comment Topic-comment vs. rheme-theme Rheme-theme: sentence Topic-comment: discourse Rheme-theme: concrete sentence structure (linguistic form) Topic-comment: abstract information structure Mikes house was so comfortable and warm! He really didnt want to leave, but he couldnt afford the rent, you know. And it had such a nice garden in the back! 18 2.2 Topic and comment Topics are not so important to the grammar of English. There is only one grammatical structure which marks topics in English. As for me, Im gonna go to bed. Other languages have special forms to mark the topic (Japanese, Korean) Chinese marks topics by word order: 作业 终于做完了！ 19 2.2 Topic and comment In English, marking the topic of a sentence is far less important than marking the subject. There are special forms to indicate the subject: She looks at him. 20 2.3 Contrast对比 Contrast: a noun phrase occurs in opposition to another noun phrase in the discourse. contrastive A: Did Tom see the ghost? B: No, John did. B: Yes, Tom saw the ghost. 21 2.3 Contrast对比 One outstanding from all is contrasted with the whole: Of everyone present, only Peter knew what was going on. Adele knew what was going on, and Peter knew what was going on. Contrast is also marked in sentences that express the narrowing down of a choice from several candidates to one. 22 2.3 Contrast对比 Test for contrast: If a noun phrase can be followed by “rather than”, it is contrastive: A: Did Tom see the ghost? B: No, John, rather than Tom, saw the ghost. B: No, Tom see the angle, rather than the ghost. 23 2.3 Contrast对比 A single sentence can have several contrastive noun phrases: A: Did Tom see a ghost? B: Yes, Tom saw a ghost, but John saw an entire cast of spirits. Contrast is observed from the discourse context or situational context. Mary likes going to Maine during the winter. 24 2.3 Contrast对比 Employee: Can I leave early today? Manager: I dont mind. In English, contrastive noun phrase can be marked by pronouncing it with strong stress: You may be smart, but hes good-looking. 25 3. Cohesion and Coherence 衔接 but if you do evil, the same will be measured back to you. Therefore, lets do good. 38 Lexical cohesion is cohesion through the use of words, i.e. the writer or speaker relates the text consistently to its area of focus through the selection of lexical items. repetition 重复 Three types: synonym 同义词 collocation 上义词 3.1.5 Lexical cohesion词汇衔接 39 Repetition: repeat the same words, or general nouns, or other words sharing the majority of semantic features. The donkey died; the poor creature has worked hard all his life. Superodinate: the same word, synonym or near- synonym, superordinate, general words, collocation. I watched a football game last night, and became very upset when the referee pulled out 3 red cards in a minute. 40 Repetition of lexical items. A repeated item may be a repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate, or a general word. There is a boy playing with fire. The boy is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care. (repetition) The lad is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care. (synonym) The child is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care. (superordinate) The idiot is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care. (general word) 41 Collocation搭配 ： the tendency of certain lexical items to co-occur. A little fat man of Bombay Was smoking one very hot day But a bird called a snipe Flew away with his pipe Which vexed（生气的） the fat man of Bombay 42 3.2 Coherence连贯 Interestingly enough, the use of cohesive devices alone may not produce texts that “make sense”. Consider the following passage: e.g. I bought a Ford. A car in which President Wilson rode down the Champs Elysees(香榭丽舍大街 ) was Black. Black English has been widely discussed. The discussion between the presidents ended last week. A week has seven days. Every day I feed my cat. Cats have four legs. The cat is on the mat. Mat has three letters. 43 从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和 尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事 : 从前有座 山 44 Coherence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in text. It concerns peoples ability to match the text with their experience or their understanding of the word. If a stretch of a language is in line with some experience or their “common sense”, it will be recognized as a meaningful text. 45 Coherence is sth underlying the text- semantic connections, logical connections or temporal sequence. It is created by our real life knowledge. Cohesion is the verbal realization of coherence in the form of cohesive devices. As we see in the last sample passage. 46 (50) Student: Ive lost my bunch of keys! Roommate: Its a fine day today. Student: So youve got a free dinner. (p197) 47 George studied law in Cambridge. And he is now a lawyer. George studied law in Cambridge. He is now a lawyer. The absence of the conjunctions “and” in the second sentence does not affect coherence at all. We know from our experience that being a lawyer is a likely outcome of studying law. In summary, there can be no meaning cohesion without coherence, but coherence without cohesion may be perfectly possible. 48 7.4 Discourse markers 话语标记语 What is the definition of discourse markers? How many types of discourse marker are there? 49 discourse markers (DM): expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence. conversational particles: well and oh parenthetical lexicalized clauses :yknow, I mean and you see, connective elements so, after all, and moreover. 50 The main role of discourse markers: to guide speakers interpretations of the utterances. The features of DMs: DMs seem to clarify a texts structural relations for the reader. Despite any differences in their use in different types of discourse, these items share a number of formal and textual features. 51 7.5 Conversational analysis The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life is called conversational analysis (CA). 52 Three mechanisms in CA adjacency pairs(相邻语对 ) preference structure(首选结构 ) presequences (前序列 ) It includes the study of how speakers decide when to speak during a conversation, how the utterances of two or more speakers are related, and the different functions that conversation is used for. 53 7.5.1 Adjacency pairs 相邻语对 Certain turns have specific follow-up turns. Questions take answers. Greetings are returned by greetings, invitations by acceptances or refusals, and so on. Such sequences of turns are called adjacency pairs: a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers. The second utterance is always a response to the first. 54 (56) A: You left the light on. B: It wasnt me! the sequence of complaint-denial is an adjacency pair. 55 Adjacency pairs have five properties: (i) Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances, a first part and a second part. (ii) The two parts are spoken by different speakers. (iii) The first and second parts belong to specific types, for example, question and answer, or greeting and greeting. 56 (iv) The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part. (v) Given that a speaker has produced a first part, the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance. 57 Adjacency pairs come in many types question-answer greeting-greeting invitation-acceptance/non-acceptance offer-acceptance/non-acceptance complaint-apology/denial summons传唤 -response assertion-assent赞成 request-acceptance promise-acknowledgement thanks-acknowledgement goodbye-goodbye. 58 However, not all first parts immediately receive their second parts. It often happens that a question-answer (Q-A) sequence will be delayed while another question-answer sequence intervenes. The sequence will then take the form of Q1-Q2-A2- A1, with the middle pair (Q2-A2) being called an insertion sequence插入语列 . 59 (57) Agent: Do you want the early flight! (=Q1) Client: What time does it arrive? (=Q2) Agent: Nine forty-five. (=A2) Client: Yeahthats great. (=A1) 60 An insertion sequence is one adjacency pair within another. In principle, the number of insertion sequences can be infinite, but the limit of human memory does not allow that. Three or four insertion sequences are common. 61 (58) A: Are you coming to our party Tuesday evening? (Q1) B: Can I bring a friend along? (Q2) A: Male or female? (Q3) B: What does that matter? (Q4) A: Just a matter of balance. (A4) B: Male. (A3) A: Okey. (A2) B: Ill be there then. (A1) 62 Ex: 1) Son: Can I watch TV, Dad? Father: Have you finished your homework? Son: No. Father: Then you cant. In this example, the father delays his answer to his sons question until he has checked if the necessary condition exists. 63 2) A: Could you lend me a few bucks? B: What for? A: I need to take a trip to San Francisco to see my girlfriend. B: How much do you want? A: Well uh 50 dollars is ok. B: When are you gonna return? A: Next Monday. B: All right. Wait for me. Ill be right back. 64 7.5.2 Preference structure 首选结构 An adjacency pair may have different second parts. For example, a question can be followed by a) a question, b) by a partial answer, c) by a statement of ignorance, d) by a denial of the relevance of the question or e) by a denial of its presupposition: 65 (59) A: What does Joe do for a living? B: a. Do you need to know? b. Oh, this and that. c. Ive no idea. d. Whats that got to do with it? e. He doesnt. 66 Preference structure divides second parts into preferred and dispreferred. The preferred is the structurally expected next act and the dispreferred is the structurally unexpected next act. The preferred second parts are more usual, more normal and less specific. 67 (60) A: Have you got a light? B: Yes. (61) A: Have you got a light? B: No, sorry. I dont smoke. Bs reply in (60) is preferred and dispreferred in (61): 68 7.5.3 Presequences 前序列 (63) Jeff: Mornin, Stan! Stan: Hi. Hows it goin? Jeff: Oh, cant complain, I guess. Ready for the meeting this afternoon? Stan: Well, I dont have much choice! 69 Greetings exemplify opening sequences, utterances that ease people into a conversation. They convey the message “I want to talk to you”. The opening sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions are called presequences. 70 Greetings are usually reserved for acquaintances who have not seen each other for a while, or as presequences for longer conversations between strangers. Some situations do not require a greeting, as with a stranger approaching in the street to ask for the time: “Excuse me, sir, do you know what time it is?” 71 (64) A: What are you doing this Sunday? B: Nothing special. Why? A: Why dont you come out with us then? Here the pre-invitation is treated as transparent by B who suspects by “why” that something is forthcoming. 72 Pre-request: (65) A: Are you going out tomorrow? B: No, not really. A: Are you using your car then? B: No. Do you want to borrow it? A: Yes, if youre not using it. A: Do you have some hot chocolate? B: Hum. A: Can I have hot chocolate with whipped cream? B: Sure. 73 pre-announcements A: I forgot to tell you the two best things that happened to me today. B: Yeah? What were they? A: I got a B+ on my math test and I got an athletic award. 74 7.6 Critical discourse analysis 批评话语分析 It is a perspective which studies the relationship between discourse events and sociopolitical and cultural factors especially the way discourse is ideologically influenced by, and can itself influence, power relations in society. 75 The basic assumption is that the relationship between the form and content of discourse is not arbitrary. There are strong connections between linguistic structure and social structure, to the extent that linguistic meaning is inseparable from ideology意识形态 . 76 Headlines in The Observer, The Sunday Times, and The Sunday Telegraph on 12 December, 1976: (66) a. NUS regrets fury over Joseph. b. Student leaders condemn insult to Keith Joseph. c. Students chiefs regret attack on Sir Keith. 77 Nowadays, critical discourse analysis is practiced within disciplines such as social psychology, law, and politics; interdisciplinary research is growing in, e.g., medical, educational, media, and political discourse. 78 Summary 1.Discourse and discourse analysis 2.Information structure 3. Cohesion and coherence 4.Discourse markers 5.Conversational analysis 6. Critical analysis 79 80 此课件下载可自行编辑修改，供参考！ 感谢您的支持，我们努力做得更好！ 81
展开阅读全文