外文翻译--机械工程的发展历程及展望

辽宁工程技术大学毕业设计附录A 机械工程的发展历程及展望人类成为“现代人”的标志就是制造工具。石器时代的各种石斧、石锤和木质、皮质的简单粗糙的工具是后来出现的机械的先驱。从制造简单工具演进到制造由多个零件、部件组成的现代机械，经历了漫长的过程。 几千年前，人类已创制了用于谷物脱壳和粉碎的臼和磨，用来提水的桔槔和辘轳，装有轮子的车，航行于江河的船及桨、橹、舵等。所用的动力，从人自身的体力，发展到利用畜力、水力和风力。所用材料从天然的石、木、土、皮革，发展到人造材料。最早的人造材料是陶瓷，制造陶瓷器皿的陶车，已是具有动力、传动和工作三个部分的完整机械。 人类从石器时代进入青铜时代，再进而到铁器时代，用以吹旺炉火的鼓风器的发展起了重要作用。有足够强大的鼓风器，才能使冶金炉获得足够高的炉温，才能从矿石中炼得金属。在中国，公元前1000前900年就已有了冶铸用的鼓风器，并逐渐从人力鼓风发展到畜力和水力鼓风。 1516世纪以前，机械工程发展缓慢。但在以千年计的实践中，在机械发展方面还是积累了相当多的经验和技术知识，成为后来机械工程发展的重要潜力。17世纪以后，资本主义在英、法和西欧诸国出现，商品生产开始成为社会的中心问题。 18世纪后期，蒸汽机的应用从采矿业推广到纺织、面粉、冶金等行业。制作机械的主要材料逐渐从木材改用更为坚韧，但难以用手工加工的金属。机械制造工业开始形成，并在几十年中成为一个重要产业。 机械工程通过不断扩大的实践，从分散性的、主要依赖匠师们个人才智和手艺的一种技艺，逐渐发展成为一门有理论指导的、系统的和独立的工程技术。机械工程是促成1819世纪的工业革命，以及资本主义机械大生产的主要技术因素。 动力是发展生产的重要因素。17世纪后期，随着各种机械的改进和发展，随着煤和金属矿石的需要量的逐年增加，人们感到依靠人力和畜力不能将生产提高到一个新的阶段。 在英国，纺织、磨粉等产业越来越多地将工场设在河边，利用水轮来驱动工作机械。但当时的煤矿、锡矿、铜矿等矿井中的地下水，仍只能用大量畜力来提升和排除。在这样的生产需要下，18世纪初出现了纽科门的大气式蒸汽机，用以驱动矿井排水泵。但是这种蒸汽机的燃料消耗率很高，基本上只应用于煤矿。 1765年，瓦特发明了有分开的冷凝器的蒸汽机，降低了燃料消耗率。1781年瓦特又创制出提供回转动力的蒸汽机，扩大了蒸汽机的应用范围。蒸汽机的发明和发展，使矿业和工业生产、铁路和航运都得以机械动力化。蒸汽机几乎是19世纪唯一的动力源，但蒸汽机及其锅炉、凝汽器、冷却水系统等体积庞大、笨重，应用很不方便。 19世纪末，电力供应系统和电动机开始发展和推广。20世纪初，电动机已在工业生产中取代了蒸汽机，成为驱动各种工作机械的基本动力。生产的机械化已离不开电气化，而电气化则通过机械化才对生产发挥作用。 发电站初期应用蒸汽机为原动力。20世纪初期，出现了高效率、高转速、大功率的汽轮机，也出现了适应各种水利资源的水轮机，促进了电力供应系统的蓬勃发展。 19世纪后期发明的内燃机经过逐年改进，成为轻而小、效率高、易于操纵、并可随时启动的原动机。它先被用以驱动没有电力供应的陆上工作机械，以后又用于汽车、移动机械和轮船，到20世纪中期开始用于铁路机车。蒸汽机在汽轮机和内燃机的排挤下，已不再是重要的动力机械。内燃机和以后发明的燃气轮机、喷气发动机的发展，是飞机、航天器等成功发展的基础技术因素之一。 工业革命以前，机械大都是木结构的，由木工用手工制成。金属(主要是铜、铁)仅用以制造仪器、锁、钟表、泵和木结构机械上的小型零件。金属加工主要靠机匠的精工细作，以达到需要的精度。蒸汽机动力装置的推广，以及随之出现的矿山、冶金、轮船、机车等大型机械的发展，需要成形加工和切削加工的金属零件越来越多，越来越大，要求的精度也越来越高。应用的金属材料从铜、铁发展到以钢为主。 机械加工包括锻造、锻压、钣金工、焊接、热处理等技术及其装备，以及切削加工技术和机床、刀具、量具等，得到迅速发展，保证了各产业发展生产所需的机械装备的供应。 社会经济的发展，对机械产品的需求猛增。生产批量的增大和精密加工技术的进展，促进了大量生产方法的形成，如零件互换性生产、专业分工和协作、流水加工线和流水装配线等。 简单的互换性零件和专业分工协作生产，在古代就已出现。在机械工程中，互换性最早体现在莫茨利于1797年利用其创制的螺纹车床所生产的螺栓和螺帽。同时期，美国工程师惠特尼用互换性生产方法生产火枪，显示了互换性的可行性和优越性。这种生产方法在美国逐渐推广，形成了所谓“美国生产方法”。 20世纪初期，福特在汽车制造上又创造了流水装配线。大量生产技术加上泰勒在19世纪末创立的科学管理方法，使汽车和其他大批量生产的机械产品的生产效率很快达到了过去无法想象的高度。 20世纪中、后期，机械加工的主要特点是：不断提高机床的加工速度和精度，减少对手工技艺的依赖；提高成形加工、切削加工和装配的机械化和自动化程度；利用数控机床、加工中心、成组技术等，发展柔性加工系统，使中小批量、多品种生产的生产效率提高到近于大量生产的水平；研究和改进难加工的新型金属和非金属材料的成形和切削加工技术。 18世纪以前，机械匠师全凭经验、直觉和手艺进行机械制作，与科学几乎不发生联系。到1819世纪，在新兴的资本主义经济的促进下，掌握科学知识的人士开始注意生产，而直接进行生产的匠师则开始学习科学文化知识，他们之间的交流和互相启发取得很大的成果。在这个过程中，逐渐形成一整套围绕机械工程的基础理论。 动力机械最先与当时的先进科学相结合。蒸汽机的发明人萨弗里、瓦特，应用了物理学家帕潘和布莱克的理论；在蒸汽机实践的基础上，物理学家卡诺、兰金和开尔文建立起一门新的科学热力学。内燃机的理论基础是法国的罗沙在1862年创立的；1876年奥托应用罗沙的理论，彻底改进了他原来创造的粗陋笨重、噪声大、热效率低的内燃机而奠定了内燃机的地位。其他如汽轮机、燃气轮机、水轮机等都在理论指导下得到发展，而理论也在实践中得到改进和提高。 早在公元前，中国已在指南车上应用复杂的齿轮系统，在被中香炉中应用了能永保水平位置的十字转架等机件。古希腊已有圆柱齿轮、圆锥齿轮和蜗杆传动的记载。但是，关于齿轮传动瞬时速比与齿形的关系和齿形曲线的选择，直到17世纪之后方有理论阐述。 手摇把和踏板机构是曲柄连杆机构的先驱，在各文明古国都有悠久历史，但是曲柄连杆机构的形式、运动和动力的确切分析和综合，则是近代机构学的成就。机构学作为一个专门学科，迟至19世纪初才首次列入高等工程学院(巴黎的工艺学院)的课程。通过理论研究，人们方能精确地分析各种机构，包括复杂的空间连杆机构的运动，并进而能按需要综合出新的机构。 机械工程的工作对象是动态的机械，它的工作情况会发生很大的变化。这种变化有时是随机而不可预见；实际应用的材料也不完全均匀，可能存有各种缺陷；加工精度有一定的偏差，等等。 与以静态结构为工作对象的土木工程相比，机械工程中各种问题更难以用理论精确解决。因此，早期的机械工程只运用简单的理论概念，结合实践经验进行工作。设计计算多依靠经验公式；为保证安全，都偏于保守，结果制成的机械笨重而庞大，成本高，生产率低，能量消耗很大。 从18世纪起，新理论的不断诞生，以及数学方法的发展，使设计计算的精确度不断的提高。进入20世纪，出现各种实验应力分析方法，人们已能用实验方法测出模型和实物上各部位的应力。 20世纪后半叶，有限元法和电子计算机的广泛应用，使得对复杂的机械及其零件、构件进行力、力矩、应力等的分析和计算成为可能。对于掌握有充分的实践或实验资料的机械或其元件，已经可以运用统计技术，按照要求的可靠度，科学地进行机械设计。 机械工程以增加生产、提高劳动生产率、提高生产的经济性为目标来研制和发展新的机械产品。在未来的时代，新产品的研制将以降低资源消耗，发展洁净的再生能源，治理、减轻以至消除环境污染作为超经济的目标任务。 机械可以完成人用双手和双目，以及双足、双耳直接完成和不能直接完成的工作，而且完成得更快、更好。现代机械工程创造出越来越精巧和越来越复杂的机械和机械装置，使过去的许多幻想成为现实。 人类现在已能上游天空和宇宙，下潜大洋深层，远窥百亿光年，近察细胞和分子。新兴的电子计算机硬、软件科学使人类开始有了加强，并部分代替人脑的科技手段，这就是人工智能。这一新的发展已经显示出巨大的影响，而在未来年代它还将不断地创造出人们无法想象的奇迹。 人类智慧的增长并不减少双手的作用，相反地却要求手作更多、更精巧、更复杂的工作，从而更促进手的功能。手的实践反过来又促进人脑的智慧。在人类的整个进化过程中，以及在每个人的成长过程中，脑与手是互相促进和平行进化的。 人工智能与机械工程之间的关系近似于脑与手之间的关系，其区别仅在于人工智能的硬件还需要利用机械制造出来。过去，各种机械离不开人的操作和控制，其反应速度和操作精度受到进化很慢的人脑和神经系统的限制，人工智能将会消除了这个限制。计算机科学与机械工程之间的互相促进，平行前进，将使机械工程在更高的层次上开始新的一轮大发展。 19世纪时，机械工程的知识总量还很有限，在欧洲的大学院校中它一般还与土木工程综合为一个学科，被称为民用工程，19世纪下半叶才逐渐成为一个独立学科。进入20世纪，随着机械工程技术的发展和知识总量的增长，机械工程开始分解，陆续出现了专业化的分支学科。这种分解的趋势在20世纪中期，即在第二次世界大战结束的前后期间达到了最高峰。 由于机械工程的知识总量已扩大到远非个人所能全部掌握，一定的专业化是必不可少的。但是过度的专业化造成知识过分分割，视野狭窄，不能统观和统筹稍大规模的工程的全貌和全局，并且缩小技术交流的范围，阻碍新技术的出现和技术整体的进步，对外界条件变化的适应能力很差。封闭性专业的专家们掌握的知识过狭，考虑问题过专，在协同工作时配合协调困难，也不利于继续自学提高。因此自20世纪中、后期开始，又出现了综合的趋势。人们更多地注意了基础理论，拓宽专业领域，合并分化过细的专业。 综合-专业分化-再综合的反复循环，是知识发展的合理的和必经的过程。不同专业的专家们各具有精湛的专业知识，又具有足够的综合知识来认识、理解其他学科的问题和工程整体的面貌，才能形成互相协同工作的有力集体。综合与专业是多层次的。在机械工程内部有综合与专业的矛盾；在全面的工程技术中也同样有综合和专业问题。在人类的全部知识中，包括社会科学、自然科学和工程技术，也有处于更高一层、更宏观的综合与专业问题。附录BMechanical engineering course of the development and prospectsHuman become modern sign is to create tools. The Stone Age stone axes,stone hammers and wood, a simple cortex rough tool is the subsequent emergence of mechanical pioneer. From the manufacture of simple tools created by the evolution of a number of parts, components consisting of modern machinery, has undergone a long process. Thousands of years ago, mankind has created for the cereals shelling and grinding of the acetabulum and grinding, to provide water and jigging machine Well Water Fetching Tool. equipped with wheels of a car, navigation on the river and paddle boats, organized, such as the rudder. Used the momentum from the mans own physical development of the use of animal power, hydro and wind. From the use of natural materials of stone, wood, soil, leather, the development of man-made materials. The earliest man-made materials are ceramics, pottery manufacture of pottery car, is motivation. Transmission and the integrity of the three parts of machinery.Mankind from the Stone Age into the Bronze Age and further to the Iron Age. Winds Mong stoves for the blast, the development has played an important role. Powerful enough for the blast, metallurgical furnace can be sufficiently high temperature, can be extracted from ore in the metal. In China, 221 1000-900 years ago has had carriage for the blast. and gradually blast from human to animal and hydraulic blast. 15 16 centuries ago, the slow development of mechanical engineering. But in the Millennium of practice, the development of machinery or accumulated a lot of experience and technical knowledge, Later in mechanical engineering as an important potential for development. After the 17th century, capitalism in the United Kingdom, France, and the West European countries there, the volume of production has become the central issue. The late 18th century, the steam engine from the application of the mining industry to promote textile, flour, and metallurgical industries. The main production machinery gradually materials from wood to switch to more resilient, it is difficult to manually processing metals. Machinery manufacturing industry began to take shape, and in several decades as an important industry. Mechanical engineering through the growing practice, from the scattered, lovingly mainly rely on human ingenuity and craft a song, and gradually developed into a theoretical guidance. system and independent engineering. Mechanical engineering contributed 18 19th century industrial revolution and the capitalist machinery, large-scale production of the main technical factors. Dynamics of the development of the important factors of production. The late 17th century, with all the mechanical improvements and development, as the coal and metal ore requirements of the yearly increase, People are relying on the human and animal production can be raised to a new stage. In Britain, textile mills and other industries will be more and more factories set up by the river, and the use of turbine driven mechanical work. But, at that time, coal, tin and copper mines such as the groundwater, only with a large number of animal resources to upgrade and exclusion. In this production needs, the early 18th century there Newcomen the atmospheric steam engine to drive mine drainage pump. However, the steam engine of this high rate of fuel consumption, basically applies only to coal. 1765, Watt invented the separate condenser of the steam engine, reducing fuel consumption rates. 1781 watts is to create a provider rotary engine of the steam engine, the steam engine to expand the scope of its application. The invention of the steam engine and development, mining and industrial production, railways and shipping have all been of mechanical power. The steam engine to the 19th century is almost the only source of power, but the steam engine and boiler, condenser, cooling water system bulky, bulky and inconvenient to use. End of the 19th century, the power supply system and electrical began the development and promotion. The early 20th century, the motor industry has replaced the production of the steam engine, all driven into the basic mechanical work force. Mechanized production is inseparable from the electrification and electrification through mechanization only play a role in the production. Power stations initial impetus for the invention of the steam engine. Early 20th century, emerged as a highly efficient, high speed, high power of the turbine, there to keep the turbine water resources, and promote the power supply system to flourish. The late 19th century after the invention of the internal combustion engine has improved and become light, small, high efficiency, easy manipulation, could start at any time the original motivation. It was first used to drive without an electricity supply mechanical work on land and later used in vehicles, mobile machinery and ships. to the mid-20th century for railway locomotives. Turbine and the steam engine in the engine exclusion, it has ceased to be an important force driving the machinery. After the invention of the internal combustion engine and gas turbines, jet engines and the development of the aircraft, Spacecraft such as the successful development of the basic technology one of the factors. Before the industrial revolution, machinery mostly wooden structure, made of wood by hand. Metals (mainly copper, iron) just to manufacture equipment, locks, clocks, pumps and wood structure of small mechanical parts. Metal processing machine Carpenter mainly rely on the intricate communications to the needs of accuracy. The steam engine to power devices in promotion, and the concomitant emergence of mining, metallurgical, ships, locomotives and other large machinery, Forming and processing needs machining metal parts to more, the accuracy requirements are increasingly high. Application of metal materials from copper and iron to the development of the steel-based. Forging including machining, forging, sheet metal process, welding, heat treatment technology and equipment, and machining technology and machine tools, knife, measuring tools, rapid development, and guarantee the development of the industrial production of machinery and equipment supply. Socio-economic development of the machinery of the surge in demand for products. Mass production and the increasing precision processing technology progress, a great deal to promote the formation of production methods, such as the production of parts interchangeability, professional division of labor and cooperation, water lines and water processing, and other assembly line. Simple parts interchangeability and professional collaboration division of production, in ancient times there was already. In mechanical engineering, Interchangeability Mocili reflected in the earliest in 1797 to use its originator of the thread lathe production of bolts and nuts. The same period, the United States engineers Whitney interchangeability with production rifle production methods, shows that the interchangeability of the feasibility and advantages. Such production methods in the United States gradually extended, forming a so-called American production methods. Early 20th century, Ford, the car manufacturer has created a pipeline assembly line. Mass production technology combined with Taylor in the late 19th century created the scientific management methods, vehicles and other large-scale production of machinery products will soon achieve production efficiency in the past unimaginable height. 20th century, the late machining the main features are : machine continuously improve the processing speed and accuracy, reduce dependence on manual skills; improve forming, machining and assembly of mechanization and automation; use NC machine tools, machining centers, group technology, the development of flexible manufacturing systems, allowing small and medium-sized manufacturers - multiple types of production to more efficient production of near-mass production level; Study hard and improve processing of a new type of metal and non-metallic materials forming and machining technology. 18 centuries ago, it all depends on the mechanical lovingly experience, intuition and craft mechanical production, with almost no scientific link. To the 18-19th century, the emerging capitalist economy under the promotion, access to scientific knowledge to start production, and the direct production of the Paradise, he started to learn scientific and cultural knowledge, The exchanges between them and the cross-fertilization achieved great results. In this process, and gradually form a set of mechanical engineering on the basis of the theory. . Dynamic mechanical first and then combining advanced science. The invention of the steam engine were Safuli, Watt, applied physicist Papan and Blakes theory; In the steam engine on the basis of practice, physicist Kano, Portland reserves Kelvin build a new science - thermodynamics. ICE is the basis of the theory of France Rosa founded in 1862; 1876 Otto application Rosa theory, radically improved his original creation of the true heavy, noise, thermal efficiency and lower engine lay the status of the internal combustion engine. Other steam turbine, gas turbine, the turbine so under the guidance of the theory of the development, Theory and practice also be improved and increased. As early as 221, China has guidelines on the application of the complex gear systems, Chinese incense burner in the application of the standard to the people of the location of such cross-mechanical switch. Ancient Greece has cylindrical gear and bevel gear and worm drive documented. However, in terms of instantaneous transmission gear ratio and the relationship between tooth and tooth curve of choice, It was not until the 17th century after the side theory expounded. Knob agencies and pedal crank linkage is the pioneer in the ancient civilization has a long history, But crank linkage in the form of kinetic and dynamic analysis of the precise and comprehensive, is the modern institutions of learning achievements. Mechanism as a specialized disciplines, until the early 19th century was the first to include the Higher Institute (Paris Institute of Technology) courses. Through theoretical study, people can accurately analyze various agencies, including the complex spatial linkages campaign and thus by the need to come up with new institutions. Mechanical engineering work objects is a dynamic mechanical, its work will change very much. This change is sometimes random and unpredictable; Practical application of the material is not entirely uniform, there may be some shortcomings; Machining accuracy of this deviation, and so on. And the static structure of the civil engineering work objects, the mechanical engineering problems more difficult to solve theoretical precision. Therefore, the early mechanical engineering only use simple theoretical concepts, practical experience work. Design calculations rely on the empirical formula; To ensure safety, conservative bias, the results were the heavy machinery and large, high cost, low productivity, energy consumption great. From the 18th century onwards, new birth of the theory of continuous and mathematical methods, the development of the design and calculation precision continuously. The beginning of the 20th century, the emergence of various experimental stress analysis, People can use experimental methods and measuring the physical model on the part of the stress. 20 half-century, the finite element method and the computers extensive use made of complex machinery and spare parts, components for power, torque, stress analysis and calculation possible. For a full grasp of the practice of experimental data or the machinery or its components, we can use statistical techniques, In accordance with the requirements of the reliability and scientific mechanical design. Mechanical engineering to increase production, improve labor productivity, raising productivity goals for economic development and to the development of new machinery products. In the next era, new product development will lower their consumption of resources, the development of clean renewable energy, governance, reduce and ultimately eliminate pollution as a super-economic targets and tasks. Machinery can be completed using hands and eyes, and both feet, his ears and can be completed directly direct the work completed and completed faster, and better. Modern mechanical engineering to create increasingly sophisticated and increasingly complex machinery and mechanical devices, so many previous fantasy become a reality. Now mankind has been able sky and the upper reaches of the universe, the deep ocean dive, gleaned 10 billion light years distant, nearly monitor cellular and molecular. Emerging electronic computer hardware, software, human sciences began to strengthen, and partially replace the human brain means of science and technology, This is the artificial intelligence. This new development has demonstrated great influence, and in the coming years it will continue to create unimaginable miracle. Human wisdom is not to reduce the growth of the hands, but instead asked for more hands, more sophisticated and more complicated work, thereby facilitating hand function. Hand practice, in turn, promote the wisdom of the human brain. In the human evolutionary process as a whole, and in each of the process of growing up, brain and hands is a mutual and parallel evolution. Artificial Intelligence and mechanical engineering akin to the relationship between brain and the relationship between the hands, The only difference lies only in artificial intelligence hardware also need to use the machinery manufactured. The past, various machinery is inseparable from the operation and control its reaction speed and precision operation by the very slow evolution of the human brain and nervous system constraints, Artificial intelligence will eliminate this restriction. Computer science and mechanical engineering among the promotion, parallel, will mechanical engineering at a higher level to start a new round of large-scale development. 19 century, the mechanical engineering knowledge volume is still very limited. European universities which it is also the general and civil engineering as a single subject, known as civil engineering, 19 the second half of the century before becoming an independent discipline. The beginning of the 20th century, along with mechanical engineering technology development and knowledge of the total growth, mechanical engineering begins to decompose, the emergence of specialized branches. This decomposition trend in the mid-20th century, that is before and after the end of the Second World War reached its peak. As mechanical engineering knowledge has expanded to the total far from the best all in the hands of individuals, some of specialization is essential. However, the excessive specialization of knowledge too divided, and narrow vision, Marketing concept, and not just to co-ordinate large-scale projects for the whole picture and the whole, and to narrow the scope of exchanges of techn