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Definition定义An academic essay,also called a research article,differs from an ordinary essay in that it consists of the review of previous studies on a particular topic and ones own research.In most cases it is a kind of documented report from the writers first-hand acquisition,synthesis and interpretation of information,data and findings.A typical academic essay includes five parts,namely,abstract,introduction,body,conclusion and reference.一个学术论文，也被称为一个研究文章，不同于普通的文章，它由一个特定主题的对前人研究的回顾和自己的研究组成。在大多数情况下，它是一个信息综合、数据和结果都由作家第一手采集和解释的书面报告。一个典型的学术论文包括五个部分，即，摘要，介绍，主体，结论和参考文献。Two types of research paper两种类型的研究论文There are two major kinds of academic paper:primary research paper and secondary research paper.A primary research paper is the study of a subject through firsthand investigation,involving presenting original ideas and information on your own.In most cases you need to conduct a survey or an experiment original ideas to obtain new findings.Hence it is sometimes called “survey-or-experiment-based research”.A secondary research paper,however,involves gathering and analyzing the research findings from other peoples research.To illustrate your argument,you need to borrow and use evidence and findings available on the topic in the library or on the Internet.Hence it is sometimes called”library-or-Internet-based research”.学术论文主要有两大类：初次研究和二次研究。初次研究是通过实地调查研究对象的一门学科，需要提出您自己的独到的见解和信息。在大多数情况下，你需要做一个调查或有创意的实验获得新的发现。因此，初次研究有时也叫“调查或实验研究”。二次研究的论文，但是，包括从其他人的研究中收集和分析研究结果。为了说明你的论点，你需要在图书馆或在互联网上发现相关主题的可借鉴和使用的证据。因此，二次研究有时被称为“图书馆或互联网基础研究”。 Writing an introduction写一个介绍The introduction section is the start of a research article and its main purpose is to give a clear picture of what the article is about and what the attitude of the author is.An introduction usually includes the following elements:引言部分是一篇研究论文的开始，其主要目的是对文章的内容和作者的态度作一个清晰的概述，介绍通常包括以下几个方面：1) Introduce the topic or problem with which the research essay is concerned.2) Give a clear definition of the topic and of the related key terms.3) Provide the relevant background information/context of the topic.4) Review the previous related studies and point out their limitation if necessary.5) State the theoretical perspectives the essay might use.6) Introduce the theoretical perspectives the essay might use.7) Justify your choice of the topic or give the reasons for your research.8) Explain how the essay will be organized(the outline of the essay).1） 介绍研究论文所关注的有关话题或问题。 2） 给出了一个主题和相关的关键术语的明确的定义。 3） 提供相关的背景信息/话题背景。 4） 回顾以前的相关研究，如果必要的话，并指出其局限性。 5） 介绍了本文可能使用的理论观点。 6） 介绍了本文可能使用的理论观点。 7） 说明你的主题的选择或你的研究的原因。 8）解释文章将如何组织（论文的提纲）。 Of course not all research papers must contain all these elements.A primary research essay,for example,differs from a secondary research one in that the literature review of the latter should be general as you will give more details in the body section where previous findings will be used to support your arguments.However,the introduction section usually goes from the general to the specific.It starts with the information of the topic in the broad context and then narrows down to the information more specifically related to the length of the paper and requirements of different journals(or conferences).当然不是所有的论文必须包含所有这些元素。例如一个初次的研究论文，不同于二次的研究，后者的文献综述你一般应该是在以前的研究结果将被用来支持你的论点的主体部分会给更多的细节。 然而，绪论部分通常是从一般到特殊，首先是大背景下的主题信息，然后缩小信息到更具体的相关论文和期刊（或会议）要求的不同的长度。 Stating the purpose of writing the essay is important.Its function is to make sure the readers know what you are trying to achieve by writing this essay.This includes establishing the topic and explaining what you will do with the topic,for example:说明写文章的目的是很重要的。它的功能是要确保读者知道你试图通过写这篇文章来达到什么目的。这包括建立这个主题，并解释你将在这一主题做什么，例如： 1) This essay will focus on the most common use of keyhole surgery which is as an intervention in cases of colon cancer in Hong Kong.2) The purpose of this essay is to examine the impact on Shanghai of the commercial application of maglev trains.3) The goal of this essay is to examine the effect of regular consumption of fast foods on the health of teenagers.1） 这篇文章将集中在最常见的用途为香港结肠癌患者的干预的锁孔手术上。 2） 这篇文章的目的是研究磁悬浮列车对上海的商业应用的影响。 3）这篇文章的目的是研究经常性消费快餐对青少年健康的影响。Hence the common format for making the statement of purpose:因此，制定目的声明的通用格式：Writing the body of a secondary research essay写二级研究论文的正文 Definition定义The body section is the major part of an essay.Its structure varies from essay to essay.The structure of a secondary research essay will be simpler as you do not have to conduct an experiment or survey of your own or carry out an empirical study.What you do is to use recent findings and data available on the Internet to illustrate your ideas.Hence the steps are:正文部分是文章的主要部分。不同文章论述的结构不同。二次论文的结构会由于你没有进行自己的实验或调查或进行实证研究而变得简单。你要做的是使用在互联网上的最近的调查结果和数据来说明你的观点。因此，步骤是：1) Evaluate all source materials you have gathered;2) Design the structure or organization of you essay according to research questions,such as cause and effect,or comparison and contrast;3) Arrange the arguments in a logical order according to the chosen structure;4) Select and organize source materials to illustrate the ideas of the topic sentences respectively.1） 评估你收集的所有源材料； 2） 根据研究问题，如因果、对比、对比等研究问题，设计出论文的结构或组织形式； 3）根据所选择的结构安排逻辑顺序； 4）选择和组织源材料，分别说明主题句的思想。Although secondary research is to use information and findings available to illustrate your ideas,it does not mean your essay lacks creative ideas.Description and introduction of previous findings are only part of the essay,and your essay entails your point of view based on the description and analysis of previous studies.In order to develop a position,you need to think critically about the ideas and findings of the source materials you have gathered,select the most appropriate evidence to support your point of view and,most importantly,add you contribution.For example,offering a new classification(a new approach)or a new effect(or a new cause,a new advantage)is the contribution you may make to the study of a certain subject.虽然二次的研究是利用信息和结果来说明你的想法，但这并不意味着你的文章缺乏创意。描述和介绍以往的研究结果，只是论文的一部分，你的论文是在描述和分析前人研究的基础上表达你的观点。为了选择一个合适的角度，你需要批判性地思考你收集的源材料的想法和结果，选择支持你的观点的最适当的证据，最重要的是，提出自己的看法。例如，提供了一种新的分类方法（新方法）或一个新的效果（或一个新的事业，新的优势）是您可能对某一学科的研究的贡献。When writing a secondary research essay,you should especially beware of falling into a trap of plagiarism as the quoting and paraphrase are more frequent in such type of essay.Remember that a secondary research essay does not mean that you simply piece together the findings of previous studies without your own things. 写一个二次研究论文时，你应该特别当心掉入抄袭陷阱由于这种类型的文章的更加频繁的引用和释义。记住一个二次研究的文章并不意味着你没有自己的东西只是拼凑了以前的研究结果。 Organizations组织结构Body structures vary from paper to paper as a secondary research paper generally lacks an empirical study which entails the method and statistic analysis.The following are some of the common types of organization.，由于一个二级研究论文一般缺乏一个需要方法和统计分析的实证研究，不同文章的组织结构不同。以下是一些常见的类型的组织结构。 A. Effect analysisThe structure of effect analysis may be used to analyze the effects of a certain phenomenon such as global warming,nuclear radiation,the use of genetically modified organisms and so on.A. 效应分析 效应分析的结构可以用来分析某一现象如全球变暖、核辐射、利用转基因生物等的影响。 B.Cause analysisTo analyze the causes for a phenomenon such as earthquakes,climate changes,sleep deprivation and breast cancer,you may use the body structure of causal analysis.B.原因分析 分析地震、气候变化、失眠和乳腺癌等现象的原因，可以采用因果分析的结构形式。 C.Pro-and-con analysisThe structure may be used to weigh both advantages and disadvantages of a technology such as GM food,nanotechnology,artificial intelligence,synthetical biology,Web3.0 and so on.c.pro-and-con分析 该结构可以用来权衡如转基因食品、纳米技术、人工智能、生物综合，Web3.0等的优点和技术缺点。 D.Comparison analysisTo compare and contrast two subjects such as computers and human brains,or organic food an traditional food,you may either use the subject-to-subject body structure or the point-to-point body structure.D.比较分析 比较和对比如计算机和人类的大脑，或有机食品和传统食品两个主题，你可以使用主题-主题或点-点结构。 A short essay might use a single type of the above organization.As long essay,however,may combine several types according to the purpose of the essay.Whatever organization is used,a thesis statement-the main idea of your essay,and several topic sentences which support the thesis from different angles are essential to ensure the coherence and logic of your essay.The following is the outline of a secondary research essay.一篇短文，可以使用一个单一类型的上述组织。但是长的文章，可以根据论文结合几种类型。无论使用什么组织类型，一个陈述你文章的主要观点，和作为支撑的从不同的角度来保证你的文章连贯性和逻辑几个主题句都是必须的。以下是一个二次研究论文的要点。 Writing the body of a primary research essay写初次研究论文的正文As a primary essay involves empirical studies based on a certain experiment or survey,it should present evidence with data and analysis in a format that can be replicated by others.Hence the body part will be composed of two sections:Methods and Results.作为一个涉及到一个特定的实验或调查的基础上的实证研究的初次的文章，它应该列出可以被他人复制的数据和分析的证据。因此，正文部分将由两部分组成：方法和结果。 Methods section方法部分The methods sections,which is a detailed breakdown of the experiment or survey,usually answers these questions:1) What are your research questions?2) How is your research carried out?3) How is your data collected?4) How are your results obtained?方法部分是一个实验或调查的分解步骤的详细介绍，通常回答这些问题： 1） 你的研究问题是什么？ 2） 你的研究是如何进行的？ 3） 你的数据是如何收集的？ 4）你的结果如何？ Therefore you must make all the following clear to the readers:1) subjects of the experiment(How were they chosen?);2) the materials(What equipment or tools were used?Where and in what condition was the experiment conducted?);3) the procedure(How did you design your study and what steps did you follow when the data were collected?)4) the criteria(What criteria are used for selecting subject?);5) The survey(How the questionnaire is designed and administered?How are the samples or respondents chosen?And how the interview is conducted-by telephone or door to door?);6) Statistical analysis(How were statistics analyzed?).因此，你必须让所有的读者明白： 1） 实验的主题（他们是如何选择的？）； 2） 材料（使用什么设备或工具？在什么条件下进行实验？）； 3） 程序（你是如何设计你的研究的，你在收集数据的时候遵循了什么步骤？） 4）标准（用于选择主题的标准是什么？）； 5） 调查（调查问卷是如何设计和管理的？样本或受访者如何选择？以及如何进行面试是通过电话或当面？）； 6）统计分析（如何统计分析？）。 The significance is:knowing how the data are collected helps the readers evaluate the validity and reliability of your results and your conclusion.One rule for a properly written method section is that:“Enough information must be given so that the experiment could be reproduced by a competent colleague(Day,1988)”.这么做的意义是：知道如何收集数据帮助读者评价你的结果和你的结论的可靠性和正确的书。写法的一个原则是：“必须给出足够信息确保实验可被同行复制(Day,1988)”。 There are many methods to carry out a similar experiment or survey.Hence you must make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure.If the method for the investigation is innovative,you should describe it in details.If the method has been previously used in other research,you should cite the work of the original researchers.开展类似的实验或调查的方法有很多，因此你必须弄清楚你为什么选择了一种特定的方法或过程。如果调查的方法是创新的，你应该详细描述。如果方法以前已经在其他的研究中被使用，你应该引用原来的研究者的工作。Results section结果部分The results section describes the statistical results and the findings of the research,which directly answers your research questions.It deals with the facts rather than the opinions.The opinions such as evaluation and commentary should be saved in the discussion section.结果表明直接回答你的研究问题研究的统计结果和结论。它交流的是事实而不是观点。评价和评价等观点应该放在讨论部分。 The results section is written in a concise and well-organized manner and is often short.It include:1) an overview of the experiment or a summary of the findings;2) Detailed presentation of the representative data and/or graphic and their locating and/or analysis;3) Detailed presentation of the findings.用一个简洁和组织良好的形式书写的结果部分，往往是短的。它包括： 1） 实验的概述或调查结果的总结； 2） 有代表性的数据和/或图形和它们的定位和/或分析的详细介绍； 3）调查结果的详细介绍。When giving an overview of the experiment,you may briefly explain how and why data have been produced,but should not repeat the details provided in the method section.You can present findings in different ways:stating the facts;comparing and contrasting;analyzing cause and effect;illustrating with graphic aids,ect.进行试验总结时，你可以简单地解释数据产生的原因和方式，但不应重复在方法部分提供的细节。你可以以不同的方式呈现结果：陈述事实；比较；分析原因和影响；以图示等。 Statistical results are usually presented in texts,plus graphic aids such as tables,graphs,charts,drawings,photographs,ect(which are usually placed at the attached appendixes if they interrupt ones reading).The findings of an experiment are usually presented in the past tense.Describing graphic aids and generalizations concluded from the research should use the present tense.统计结果通常呈现在文本中，加如表、图、图表、图纸、照片图示等表格（通常放置在所附的附件中，如果它们会打断阅读）。一个实验的结果通常都是过去时了。描述图形和概括得出的研究结果使用现在时态。Writing a discussion or/and conclusion撰写讨论或/和结论The discussion and the conclusion can be either written separately or combined into one section.As the final part of the essay,it can serve a number of functions:讨论和结论可以单独或组合成一个部分。作为文章的最后一部分，它可以起到一些作用： 1) to summarize the main ideas or key findings in the essay;2) To make some comments on the findings;3) To compare your results with previous results;4) To explain unexpected results;5) To explore possible implications;6) To point out its limitations of the work covered by your essay;7) To mention further research that might be required.1） 总结文章的主要思想或主要研究成果； 2） 对调查结果发表评论； 3） 将你的结果与以前的结果进行比较； 4） 解释意想不到的结果； 5） 探讨可能产生的影响； 6） 指出你的文章所涵盖的工作的局限性； 7）提到可能是必需的进一步的研究。Separately,discussion section discusses the issues arising from findings and limitations of your research whereas conclusion section includes a summary of main findings,implications,recommendations,possibilities for further research.另外，讨论部分讨论了从你的研究中产生的结果和局限性，而结论部分包括一个对主要研究结果，影响，建议，进一步研究的可能性的总结。Now look at the following example:现在看下面的例子：This study provide further evidence that in addition to short-term merits,content based language instruction has long-term benefits that impact students future academic performance.A content-linked ESL curriculum is a model of instruction that meets the linguistic and academic needs of college ESL students.It enhances cross-curricular academic achievement in both language and discipline courses and promotes academic growth and success over time.这项研究提供了进一步的证据表明，除了短期的优点，基于语言教学的内容有一个长期效益，可以影响学生未来的学术表现。与ESL内容有关的课程是一个满足高校学生的语言和学术需求的教学模式。它增强了在语言和专业课程上跨学科的学术成就，促进学术成就随着时间而增长和成功。 Writing an abstract摘要写作An abstract,compared after your research paper is finished and placed before the main text,is a condensed summary of the papers key information.The main purpose is to enable the readers to be informed of the basic content and chief results of your paper quickly and accurately.An effective abstract summarizes the main points of the investigation,including:在你的论文完成后写作的放在正文前的摘要是论文的关键信息的概括。主要目的是使读者快速准确地了解你论文的基本内容和论文的主要结果。有效的摘要概述了调查的要点，包括：1) the statement of the problem;2) The purpose or objective of the study;3) The methods or brief description of the experiment;4) The important data or results of any statistical analysis;5) The chief findings;6) The principal conclusions or recommendations.1） 问题的陈述； 2） 研究的目的或目标； 3） 实验方法或实验简要说明； 4） 统计分析的结果或重要数据； 5）主要调查结果； 6）主要结论或建议。 Economy of words,however,is important.The length of an abstract varies according to the length of the paper and requirements of different journals(Generally 200 words should be a sensible maximum).It uses s single paragraph.Generally speaking,the opening and concluding statements are written in the present or the present perfect tense,while the methods and results are expressed in the past tense.然而，词汇的经济性是很重要的，一个摘要的长度根据不同的期刊的长度和不同的要求而变化（一般来说最多200个词应该是可接受的），它使用的是单一的段落。 一般来说，开篇和总结性陈述都是用现在或现在完成时态，而方法和结果是用过去时态表达的。Writing a reference list写参考列表Citations-whether you have copied directly(quoted)or rewritten using your own words(paraphrasing)-should be indicated clearly in the reference list,the purpose of which is to provide readers with more details of sources you have used in the essay.Hence every reference in the text must have a matching entry in the reference list which include information about the author,title,publisher.There are different kinds of styles.But whichever one you adopt,some rules should be followed:引用无论你是直接复制（引用）还是用自己的话改写（意译）都应该在参考文献列表中明确表示出，其目的是为读者提供您使用的文章来源的更多细节。因此，在文本的参考文献列表中每一个引用必须包括作者，标题，出版社.引用有不同的风格。但无论你采取哪种都应遵循以下的一些原则： 1) place the reference list after the last section of the essay.2) Do not include sources which have not been cited in the text of the essay.3) Start each item in the list at the left margin.If an item extends to more than one line,indent the additional lines.4) Use the last or family name and initials(not full names)for all authors.5) Arrange the items in the alphabetical order of authors family names.1） 将参考书目放在文章的最后一节后。 2） 不要包括在文章正文中没有被引用的来源。 3） 从左边边缘开始每个引用。如果引用扩展到不止一行，缩进其他行。 4） 所有作者使用最近一个或家族的名字和缩写（不是完整的名字）。 5）安排一个按作者的姓氏的字母顺序排列的条项。 The following are examples of Referencea CBE style,used in all scientific disciplines related to experimental and observational science(including but not limited to physical science,mathematics,and life sciences).The order of the CBE N-Y system is:Author A,Year.Title of work.Edition.Place of publication:Publisher name.Number of pages p.以下是参考的例子 CBE风格，用于与实验和观测的科学相关的所有科学学科（包括但不限于物理科学，数学，科学和生命科学），CBE N-Y系统的顺序是：作者，年份，文章的标题，编辑，出版社的地址，出版社名称。页码 Academic writing style学术论文的写作风格 The style of academic writing is quite different from that of an English composition or that of an oral presentation.As its objective is to inform rather than entertain,an academic essay is characterized by objectivity and preciseness.To achieve them,formality and hedging are two important elements of an objective and precise paper.学术写作的风格是和一个英语作文或口头演讲完全不同的。它的目的是告知而不是娱乐，学术论文具有客观性和准确性。为了实现它们，格式和保险是客观和精确的研究的两个重要因素。Formality格式To make your writing more formal and”academic-sounding”,try some of the suggestions below:为了让你的写作更正式和“学术”，尝试下面的一些建议：1) long and formal words are used instead of words used in daily communication.Complex grammatical structures such as nominal phrases,subordinate clauses and passive are preferred.2) Avoid using the second person pronouns such as you,ect.These pronouns make your writing sound like you are addressing readers orally.3) Eliminate contractions such as isnt,dont,youre,ect.Which are considered too informal and conversational for academic writing.4) Avoid run-on sentences.Run-on sentences are common in speech and other informal interactions because we just keep adding something we wanted to say.In writing,however,these run-ons become distracting and hard to follow.1） 长而正式的词代替日常交际中使用的词语，如名词性短语、从句和被动句等复杂的语法结构。 2） 避免使用如你第二人称代词，这些让你的作品听起来像你正在试图说服读者。 3）消除如isnt,dont,youre等被认为是非正式的，口语的缩写应用于学术写作。 4）避免使用run-on句子.run-on句子常用于演讲和其他非正式的交流，因为我们不断增加一些我们想说的话。在写作中，然而，这些成为分散和难以理解的部分。 Hedging保险Chances are that in your paper there may be information or evidence that you have not found an exception to the conclusion that you have drawn.In this case you need to use cautious language to avoid the possibility of people saying that you are wrong.The cautious language is called hedging.For example:in”Our results seem to suggest that less industrialized countries turn out more greenhouse gas emissions”,the words seem and suggest are hedging expressions,the use of which can reduce the risk of opposition because you state your opinions cautiously.The common hedgi
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