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衔接,“衔接”这一概念是Halliday于1962年首次提出的。后来在他与Hasan合著的CohesioninEnglish一书中把衔接定义为“存在于篇章内部，使之成为语篇的意义关系。他们认为，衔接是产生语篇的必要的条件在他们看来，有了衔接不一定产生语篇，但是如果没有衔接则一定不会产生语篇。,他们系统地将衔接分为五大类：照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）及词汇衔接（lexicalcohesion）。其中前三类属于语法手段，第四类属于逻辑手段，最后一类属于词汇衔接手段。,语法衔接1.指代referencepersonalreferencedemonstrativereferencecomparativereferences,Personalreference,Personalreferenceisreferencebymeansoffunctioninsituation.Thefollowingarepersonalreferences:Masculine:he/him,hisFeminine:she/her,hersNeuter:it/itsGeneralizedhuman:they/them/theirs/their,Examples,(1)A:Howoldisyourson?B:Heisseven.(2)A:Howoldisyourson?B:Sheisplayinginthegarden.(3)A:ClaireandKentclimbedMt.McKinleylastsummer.B:Shephotographedthepeak,andhesurveyedit.,Demonstrativereference,Demonstrativereferenceisareferencebymeansoflocation.E.g.Leavethatthereandcomehere.Thesearemyfavoritesandthosearemyfavoritestoo.,Comparativereferences,Comparativereferencesisreferencebymeansofcomparison.Thefollowingarecomparativereferences:as,such,so,likewise,similarly,otherwise,else,differently,bigger,more,less,better,Examples,ChildA:Thecatrunsrealfast.ChildB:No,thelionrunsmuchfaster.ChildA:Thecatisfaster,theliondoesntevenrun.ChildB:No,thelionisthefastest.Mydadsaidthis.Thisisthecaseofcomparativereference.,2.替代substitutionThisbiscuitsarestale.Getsomefreshones.(名词性替代）“ifyouhaveseenthemsooften,ofcourseyouknowwhattheyrelike.”“Ibelieveso,”Alicerepliedthoughtfully.（分句性替代）,3.省略ellipsis(zerosubstitution)“howmanyhoursadaydidyoudolessons?saidAlice.”Ididthattenhoursthefirstday,”saidTom.（分句性省略）,逻辑衔接,4.连接conjunctionA.通过标点符号衔接Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.(JuliusCeaser)Thesunisgrowingwarm,frogsarewakinginthemarshes,plantingtimewillbesoonhere.B.通过连接词衔接,词汇衔接lexis,（1）重复(repetition)重复主要指语篇中单词和词组的重复，词汇重复的使用可以使语篇连贯，给读者留下深刻的印象，从而达到突出主题的目的。如：Iwantawifewhowilltakecareofmyphysicalneeds,Iwantawifewhowillkeepmyhouseclean,awifewhowillpickupafterme,Iwantawifewhowillkeepmyclothesclean,ironed,mended,replacedwhenneedtobeIwantawifewhowillplanthemenusIwantawifewhowillcareformewhenImsick这篇摘自美国女作家JudySyfers的IWantaWife的文中，短短700词左右的文章，wife/wifes就用了50多次；“Iwantawife”这个句式出现了30多次。使用重复的手段列举了“妻子”的沉重负担，这样反复使用同一词汇wife/wifes和句子Iwantawife，不但不显得累赘，反而使作者的写作目的表达得淋漓尽致，文章的主题一目了然。,（2）同义/反义(synonym/antonym)同义性指具有同样意义或相近意义的不同词项之间的接应关系，这个词的意义可以指人、物、过程或性质。反义性的功能是在两个词项之间可以期待一种意义有区别的对比关系。如：1.Ifyouwanttostayhappilymarried,alwaysbepreparedtocompromise.Whenyouhavedifferentopinionsaboutsomething,youeachgivewayalittle.2.Balancingworkandschoolwasdifficult.“Iwasstayinguplatestudying,andgoingtoworkearlyeverymorning.”例1中的compromise和giveway是一对同义词，这样既丰富了语篇的表现力，又使文章增色不少。例2中的stayinguplate和goingtoworkearly是一对反义词，强调两种不同的动作，语篇意思明确，表现生动。同义词和反义词的使用突出了语义的连贯，使语言更加丰富多彩。,（3）上下义(hyponomy)上义词是相对于下义词而言的。上义词的含义一般概括而抽象，下义词则表示比较具体的含义。1.Topstudentsallownointerruptionsoftheirstudytime.Oncethebooksareopen,phonecallsgounanswered,TVunwatchedandnewspapersunread.在此句中，interruptions在这一特定语境中可看作上义词，而phonecalls、TV和newspapers则为三个下义词，表示interruptions的具体含义。上义词和下义词的使用使文章叙述更有条理性，类属关系分明，文脉清晰。,（4）搭配(collocation)搭配指不同的词汇在意义上是有联系的，它们往往会出现在同一语篇中，如例中的ice-creamstore和dessert，这些语义上有联系的词汇也可以起到衔接语篇的作用。1.Myfive-year-oldsonandIstoppedatourlocalice-creamstoretogetdessertforhisbirthdayparty.,连贯(coherence),：是整个语篇一致性的抽象特征。词汇衔接句子衔接段落衔接,1、词汇衔接：连接词、同义词、反义词、上、下义词、同一语义场等,连接词（conjunction)Astudentacquiresknowledgemainlyfromthetextbookandinclass.Asaresult,（结果）whenhegraduatesfromschoolhecandonothing.For（原因）everythingisdifferentfromwhatteacherstoldhim.Hemayevenbedisappointedand（并列）frustrated.Intheend,（总结）hemaybeafraidtofacetherealworld.,同义词(synonym)Thefarmwasownedbytwobrothers.Theyemployedafewfarmhands,butnoonewaswillingtoworklong.Everytimeaworkergaveuphisjob,hetoldthesamestory.Farmlaborerssaidthat反义词(antonym)Failureisthemotherofsuccess.上下义词(hyponymy)Ithasneverbeenexplainedwhyuniversitystudentsseemtoenjoypracticaljokesmorethananyoneelse.Studentsspecializeinaparticulartypeofpracticaljoke:hoax.Invitingthefirebrigadetoputoutanonexistentfireisacrudeformofdeception.Studentsoftencreateamusingsituationswhicharefunnytoeveryoneexceptthevictim.,同一语义场(semanticfield)Smallboatsloadedwithwaresspedtothegreatlinerasshewasenteringtheharbor.Beforeshehadanchored,themenfromtheboatshadclimbedonboardandthedecksweresooncoveredwithcolorfulbutIdecidednottobuyanythinguntilIhaddisembarked.,综合运用Waltersgoalinlifewastobecomeasuccessfulsurgeon.First,though,hehadtogetthroughhighschool,soheconcentratedallhiseffortsonhisstudies-inparticular,biology,chemistryandmath.Becauseheworkedconstantlyonthesesubjects,Walterbecameproficientinthem;however,Walterforgotthatheneededtomasterothersubjectsbesidesthosehehadchosen,asaresult,duringhisjunioryearofhighschool,WalterfailedbothEnglishandLatin.Consequently,hehadtorepeatthesesubjectsandhewasalmostunabletograduateonschedule.Finally,onJune6,Walterachievedthefirststeptowardrealizinghisgoal.,2句子衔接,使用过渡句Ithasbeensaidthateveryonelivesbysellingsomething.Inthelightofthisstatement,(概括-具体）teacherslivebysellingknowledge,philosophersbysellingwisdomandpriestsbysellingspiritualcomfort.Everyonehassomethingtosell.(承上启下)Trampsseemtbetheonlyexceptiontothisgeneralrule.Beggarsalmostsellthemselvesashumanbeingstoarousethepityofpassers-by.Butrealtrampsarenotbeggars.Theyhavenothingtosellandrequirenothingfromothers.,使用平行结构American,therichestandmostpowerfulnationintheworld,canwellleadthewayinthisrevolutionofvalues.Thisisnothingtopreventusfrompayingadequatewagestoschoolteachers,ThereisnothingbutalackofsocialvisiontopreventusfrompayinganadequatewagetoeveryAmericancitizenThisisnothing,exceptatragicdeathwish,topreventusfromThereisnothingtokeepusfrom,使用信息结构粘连句子(1)Butmoneyisnoteverything.(2)Itisthat,withmoney,wecanbuywhatevermaterialthingswewant.(3)Life,however,ismorethanjustmaterialthings.(4)Peoplesspiritualneedsusuallycannotbefullymetwithmaterialthings.(5)Onthecontrary,manypeoplewhoaremateriallyricharesufferingfromlackingspiritualballast.(6)Somoneyalonedoesnotleadtoahappylife.,使用信息结构粘连句子已知信息新信息已知信息新信息Butmoneyisnoteverything.Itisthat,withmoney,wecanbuywhatevermaterialthingswewant.However,materialthingsonlydonotmeanahappylife.Inamoreimportantsense,lifeinvolvesspiritualthings.Peoplesspiritualneedsusuallycannotbefullymetwithmaterialthings.Onthecontrary,manypeoplewhoaremateriallyricharesufferingfromlackingspiritualballast.Somoneyalonedoesnotleadtoahappylife.,3段落衔接,按时间顺序(chronologicalorder)Wehadanumberofclosecallsthatday.Whenwerose,itwaslateandwehadtohurrysoasnottomissbreakfast;Then,whenwehadbeendrivinginthedesertfornearlytwohours-itmusthavebeenclosetonoon;bythetimewereachedthemountain,itwasfouroclocknotrealizingthedarknesscamesuddenlyinthedesert.BysixwewerestrugglingBynineithadbeenourluckyday.,按空间顺序(spatialorder)Fromadistance,itlookedlikeaskinnytube,butaswegotcloser,wecouldseeitfleshoutbeforeoureyes.Standingtenfeetaway,wecouldmarvelatinside,thetubewasgloomy,Thenasteep,narrowstaircasetookusupinsidethepagoda,按重要性顺序(重要性递增或递减),Workisindispensabletomansexistence.Itprovidesthematerialthingsoflife,thegoodsandservicesthatmakepossibleourancientcivilizationandmoderncivilizationaswell.Mancantpossiblysurvivewithoutfood,clothingandshelterwhicharefruitsofhiswork.Howevermorepsychologistshavecometorealizethatworkismorethatanecessityformostpeople.Itisthesourceofhappinessandcreativity.Amoderateamountofworkisbeneficialtomanshealth.Factsprovethatthemoreoneuseshidbrains,themoreactiveandefficientheisthinking.Ofallworkersofalltrades,mailmenonbikehavethelongestlifeexpectancy.Aboveall,workoffersambitiouspeoplechancestorealizetheirvalues.Awriterorascientistmayconceivewonderfulideasordesigns,yettheirworksordesignscantcomeintobeingwithouttheircreativework.Inthissense,weshouldregardnotonlyasmeansofmakingalivingbutalsomeansofenrichingourlife.,区别与联系,衔接和连贯是两个重要而不同的概念。连贯源于篇章的语义内容，而衔接则涉及篇章的结构形式。简单地说，衔接是语篇现象，指得是发话者用来表示经验和人际方面语言连贯的语法手段；而连贯是心理现象，它存在与人的头脑中，无法在语篇层面上找到线索。衔接是指一段话中在语法或词汇方面有联系或语法和词汇这方面都有联系。这种联系可能存在于不同的句子之间，也可能存在于一个句子的几个部分之间。文章通过一定的衔接手段，将句与句，段与段有机地组合起来，构成一个完整的语义单位。因此，读者理解篇章的程度取决于衔接好坏。衔接是篇章的有形网络，它通过词汇和语法手段让语句文理通顺。句子连贯（coherence）是指句中的成分之间具有合乎逻辑的有机联系，句子的表述思路清晰，使交际对方容易得到要领。连贯是篇章的无形网络，原作作者以了解情景为基础，通过逻辑推理，达到语义的连贯，所以说语义连贯是话语组成的重要标志，读者要根据句内和句间的关系吃透文章的结构和题旨，才能充分理解该文。篇章是由句子来实现的语义整体。构成篇章的句子既要在结构上相互联系，又要在语义上彼此衔接。语篇中根据各个意念之间的联络关系来组成的意义段或整篇文章中心思想的现象就是连贯。在形式上用修辞手段把文字联结成语篇整体的现象就是衔接。,
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