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Key to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter 77.1.11. Regional dialect is the kind of dialect that is spoken and used by the people in a geographical region. Every local group of people spoke the language a little differently from other groups. For instance, these differences may be found in pronunciation, spelling, and the use of words and grammatical structures. With the passage of time, a regional dialect may become the standard dialect of a nation. This is largely due to a number of socio-economic and political reasons. 2. Sociolinguistic studies have revealed that women speakers of English speak more or less differently than their male counterparts. Female speech lacks the assertive tone of male speech. Women tend to use more rising intonations. They may seek permission by doing this. Women use more tag questions and reverse accents than men. They make a heavier use of the inconclusive intensifiers so and such. Women are more careful to follow prescriptive rules of grammar. Moreover, womens speech shows a more refined perception in certain areas. Women are said to have a color vocabulary that contains items such as azure and turquoise.3. Yes. Young people are likely to borrow some words originally used in the technical field, like the young may have used the word cool, formerly a word from the Internet. Young people are likely to invent new use of vocabulary and slang words. Aged speakers may be more conscious of their social class by using language to fashion themselves as different from young people. Most of the aged speakers may keep many of their old dialects with them, and some may stick to the prescriptive use of language in order to preserve the tradition, or simply to gain respect. Many old speakers resist the innovation expressions and language change. 7.1.21. Dialect is a variety of language which differs grammatically, phonologically and lexically from other varieties, and which is associated with a particular geographical area and/or with a particular social class or status group. A language is typically composed of a number of dialects. Register is defined according to the use of language. It is a technical term used to describe a language variety that is associated with a particular topic, the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and the speech channel. Registers can identify speakers as being members of a particular group, and are for that reason often labeled jargon.整理为word格式2. Yes, there should be some differences. When scientists are talking about IT among themselves, technical terms may be used. Yet, when they talk to little children, they may try to use vocabulary easy for the children to understand. They may avoid technical terms. 7.1.31. a) He is nice. b) They are mine. c) Im going to do it.d) John will be happy. e) John is happy. f) He will be late.g) He is late. h) Are you tired? i) Are you tired?2. In Black English, one prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the verb be. Another syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of the expression it is where Standard English uses there is.7.2.11. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a hypothesis associated with the American scholars Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. The hypothesis assumes that peoples habitual thought patterns and ways of perceiving the world are conditioned to a certain extent by the categories and distinctions that are available to them in their native language. Speakers of different languages may therefore have rather different world-views, depending on how different the languages are from one another semantically and grammatically.2. When language is used in contexts of communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways. Members of a community or social group do not only express experience; they also create experience through language. Through all its verbal and non-verbal aspects, language embodies and symbolizes cultural reality. The theory of linguistic relativity claims that linguistic structure tends to influence what they routinely do think. It is recognized that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Culture is semantically encoded in the language itself, and at the same expressed through the actual use of the language.整理为word格式3. To most Chinese speakers, the associative meaning of dog is negative in effect. To most English speakers, the associative meaning of dog is positive in effect. 7.2.21. This is the result of ever-increasing political, economic, academic and cultural contacts and exchanges among speakers of different languages. 2. The Chinese kinship system is not exactly the same as the English kinship system. At the word level, most English kinship terms does not make further distinctions in terms of relatives on mothers or fathers side. For example, the term uncle can refer to the brother of both ones mother or father. However, some Chinese kinship terms does make fine distinctions. For example, 伯is used to refer to ones fathers elder brother and 叔 to ones fathers younger brother. 3. Linguistically, politeness can be expressed in a number of ways in both languages. For instance, in English-speaking countries, words and phrases like please, would you can be used for politeness sake. In Chinese, words like 请，您are used. To show politeness, people often great each other when they meet. English may use morning, hello, hi, how are you doing or other similar expressions. Chinese may use 你好, 上哪儿？, 吃了吗？ and other similar expressions. 7.3.11. a) i-mode is the name used in Japan for NTT DoCoMos mobile internet service. b) FOMA (Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access) is the name used in Japan for NTT DoCoMo W-CDMA services. c) E-book is electronic book. The book is an advanced computer with a large capacity and book-like interface. It can memorize characters and download information from the Internet. d) WAP is the abbreviation of Wireless Application Protocol. e) W-CDMA is the abbreviation of Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, which is a standard of 3G, the Third Generation mobile communication.2. An individual can not change language. Although language is changing with the lapse of time, the change is beyond the will of an individual. Language change is a constant and unavoidable fact of life. It must obtain the agreement and acceptance from speakers of the language community. Moreover, the change of a language often has political, social and economic reasons.整理为word格式3. It is true that more and more technical terms are used in every life. The distinction between technical terms and common daily vocabulary is getting blurt. For example, catalyst is a chemical term, but is now used in daily communication, as in Nixons visit to China acted as a catalyst for normalization of the relations between the two countries. So it the case with the Chinese 催化剂. 7.3.21. a) E-mail: This word comes from the Internet technology. It means mail sent by way of the Internet. b) GSM: this is the abbreviated form for Global System for Mobile Telecommunications. c) Cyberspace: This word comes from the network technology, referring to the universe of environments, such as the Internet, in which persons interact by means of connected computers.2. boon, damsel, eventide. 3. omitted7.3.37.3.4a. It nothing pleased his master.Mod. Eng.: It pleased his master nothing.Change: Principal rule changes in the structure of English sentences occurred in their word orders. Today, the negative element has to follow the finite element.b. He hath said that we would lift them whom that him please.Mod. Eng.: He has said that we would lift them who please him.Change: Word order SOV has changed to SVO construction, c. I have a brother is condemned to die.整理为word格式Mod. Eng.: I have a brother who is condemned to die.Change: Old English lost relative pronoun, which is now added to the English language. d. I bade them take away you.Mod. Eng.: I bade them to take you away.Change: In Modern English, pronouns can be inserted between the verb and the adverb. e. I wish you was still more a Tartar.Mod. Eng.: I wish you were still a Tartar.Change: The English speaker today rarely uses still more. He also pays attention to the use of were after you. f. Me was told.Mod. Eng.: I was told.Change: The placement of pronouns like me and I has particularly changed. English now uses I as grammatical subject.7.4.11. A standard language is the language norm of a nation. It may be artificially created on the basis of a multiplicity of dialects of a language. It may also be chosen from one variety of a language, because it is regarded as a prestigious norm. Once it is established, it is used nationwide. Standard language is always a written form of the language and is preserved through a distinct print culture serving a variety of political, economic, educational, and ideological interests.2. Generally speaking, standard language embodies a symbolic value beyond its pragmatic use and becomes a totem of a cultural group. Thus, standard language can help unify a nation, express national identity, facilitate the exchanges among speakers of different dialects, 7.4.2整理为word格式1. National language refers to the full set of all regional, social, and functional, spoken and written variants of a historically and politically defined linguistic community. It is the symbol of a nation and can also be one of the official languages. Generally speaking, official language is used in the government. 2. The most decisive factor in the choice of a foreign language is the purpose of learning a foreign language. Some people learn a foreign language because they need to communicate with the foreigners. Some learn a foreign language because they want to pursue further studies in a university or college in another country. Others learn a foreign language just for pleasure. We should also consider current economic, technological, and academic situation of the world. For example, English has a tendency of becoming a global language.Charpter 88.1.11. In a general sense, acquisition is synonymous with learning. Yet, in a specific sense, acquisition involves the spontaneous development of rule internalization that relies on natural language use. It is often natural, without focus on form. Foreign language learning is conscious, and metalinguistic through formal school-like settings in the process. The output of acquisition is in the learners mind and s/he has access to it for automatic processing and uninhibited performance. On the contrary, foreign language learning requires time for processing, with focus on linguistic form in addition to knowledge of rules of use.2. Mother tongue acquisition does not require a child to memorize words and sentences. Speakers learn their mother tongue words or sentences by inference - the items are not simply memorized, but slightly or largely sub-consciously internalized into the memory bank. Native speakers are exposed to the language environment and can somehow abstract unconscious knowledge of the grammar of the mother tongue on the basis of the phrases and sentences they hear. 整理为word格式3. Omitted. 4. Formal instruction may contain such elements as social factors, input and interaction that have effect on second language acquisition. It enables the learner to have a systematic mastery of the linguistic system and the rules of use of the second language. However, learners differ greatly in how quickly they learn an L2, in the type of proficiency they acquire and the ultimate level of proficiency they reach. 8.1.21. Generally speaking, the child experiences four stages in his first language acquisition: the babbling stage, the holophrastic stage, the two-word stage, and the telegraph to infinity stage. In the first few months, the infant begins to babble. The sounds produced in this period (apart from the continuing stimulus-controlled cries and gurgles) seem to include the sounds of human languages. The holophrastic stage occurs after one year (it varies from child to child). The child starts to use the same string of sounds repeatedly to mean the same thing. At this point the child has learned that sounds are related to meanings. When the child is two years old or so, she starts to produce two-word utterances. During the two-word utterance stage there are no syntactic or morphological markers and pronouns are rare. During the stage of telegraph to infinity, child begins to produce utterances longer than two words. However, small function words such as to, the, can, is, are often missing; only the content words occur. Hallidays (1975: 244) functional account of early language development recognizes three phases.2. To some degree, parents serve as the reinforcement in the childs first language acquisition. The study by Carroll (2000: 316) shows that there is a direct link between parental speech and child language development, but they are limited in several respects. Although parental speech may influence child speech, it is still a question whether such speech modifications are necessary for normal language acquisition. Throughout the early years, the interaction between parent and child is vital important to language development. Not only does the parent, particularly the mother, provide a model of language for a child to copy, but she also plays a supportive role in encouraging a child to communicate. 整理为word格式3. The words consistently appear in the childs sentences are the content words, mainly the nouns, verbs and adjectives. The words the child occasionally leaves out are function words which include articles (a, the); prepositions (in, on, with, etc.); the verb to be and auxiliary verbs. The parent can understand her so easily simply because the words which the child used normally occur in the same order as they would in the parental sentences in the context. 8.2.11. In the language classroom, the learning can takes places through the teachers classroom management and through classroom such as debates, story-telling, group discussions and role-playing. Thus, language learners can be motivated. Language classroom can provide the comprehensible input with the teachers presentation and the interactive activities among the students. It can give the learner feedback and the learners may respond to the feedback one way or another. Although most language classroom lays stress on the explicit teaching of linguistic forms, it assists L2 learners, especially beginners, by giving opportunities for them to receive modified comprehensible input that are particularly suited to their current stage of L2 development. In addition, both teaching materials and methods can be tuned to meet the needs of the learner.2. Neither of them are correct English expressions. In (a), the relative pronoun at the beginning of the attributive clause is missing, and in (b), the agreement between subject and the predicate is violated. Besides, the definite article the is missing in the prepositional phrase in evening. All this shows that the learner may be influenced by the grammatical patterns of his mother tongue. The Chinese learner of English speaking a language with a syntax dissimilar to that of English tends to have more difficulty with articles and relative clauses. For example, in Chinese, we dont have to have articles before a noun. 3. Cross-linguistic similarities can produce positive transfer in several ways. Similarities in vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension. Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sounds easier. Similarities between writing systems can give learners a head start in reading and writing in the target language; and similarities in syntactic structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar. 8.2.2整理为word格式1. The learners ethnic background, gender, and social status can be said to be the major social factors which can influence the process of L2 learning. They can act as the determinant of the input that learners receive, and what variety of the target language the learner will be exposed to and also the amount of exposure. 2. Omitted.3. There may be various internal factors that might have an impact on the success in L2 learning. These causes can be termed as a set of variables, such as learner attitudes, the learning opportunities, the learners socio-economic class and ethnic background, age, sex, the setting, ethnic identity, cultural distance, attitudes, and motivation. The relationship between these variables and L2 learning is extremely complex. It should be recognized that it is not age, sex, social class, or ethnic identity that determine L2 proficiency, but rather the social conditions and attitudes associated with these variables. Also, the factors interact among themselves, and their effect on learning depends to a large extent on the setting. Thus, we can see that different learners achieve different levels of success in L2 learning.8.3.11. The gist of Jackendoffs account of the relation between language and thought is that there is no absolute connection between language and thought. Language is by no means the thought, and vice versa. To Jackendoff (1994: 180), thought is a mental function completely separate from language, and it can go on in the absence of language. Language provides a scaffolding that makes possible certain varieties of reasoning more complex than are available to nonlinguistic organisms. Yet, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis claims that the structure of the language one habitually uses influences the manner in which one thinks and behaves. Thought is shaped by language. Formulation of ideas is not an independent process, but part of a particular grammar, and differs more or less between different grammars. 2. No. The way people perceive the world is not totally determined by their language. We can find some evidence from our daily life. For instance, infants can think before they can voice an utterance. We contemplate in images as well as in words beside abstract logical propositions.3. Yes, more or less. This belief involves linguistic relativity, which refers to the idea that peoples language is different since their thought may be different, and there exist varieties of expressions that are available for particular communities to express specific thought. However, language is not itself the form of thought. Thought is given a conscious manifestation through the phonetic forms that it corresponds to. Thought and concepts are independent of language, and language is basically for the communication of thought, but it is also possible for language to enhance human cognitive powers. Complex thought can exist without linguistic expressions but by painting or music. Thought itself is a separate brain phenomenon, though language expresses thought.整理为word格式8.3.21. They are localized in Brocas area and Wernickes area. Brocas area is in charge of speech planning and output. Wernickes area is in responsible for speech comprehension. The angular gyrus area is also playing a role seeing to transform a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa. It is vital important area for the coordination of a speech sound with a perceived entity, for the labeling of objects, and for the understanding of written language.2. Yes. When we read, we perceive what we read from several levels. By our visual perception, we organize visual stimuli and auditory perception to the organization of sounds or auditory stimuli. The processing of written language exists at three main levels: the feature, letter, and word. Reading speed is d
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