太阳能电池板的应用

ocusingon ways and meansof improving and upgrading work, further development of three tosplit. (A) fully grasp nouna uthorise d created. The township no unauthori sed created the existing building onehouse hol d, one document survey and file storage work must be unconditional and full coverage. Mai n corridor lea ding to the town (road, river) village, theCentral built-up areaprovisiof the town on both sides must be tocreate a nouna uthorised village.According to five hundred villages created and shanty towns, villages, ol d houses, reconstruction of oldplant,expandcreate, upgradingcreates files, the real no unauthorised village created into the benefit of the people of very good thing. (B) to strictly manage count as unauthori sedcontrols.Promoti ng the newcontr ol work to move thecenterof gravity, management measures to ters an areahe front, and ear nestly pipes effectively. Astrict new unaut horise d net work responsiwith the new regulatory requirements, effective implementation of the areaof responsibility of the new inspections, suppression, demolition work to ensure that the new zero tolerance. Second,public security, water, electri city, water, oceans and fisheries, tourism collaboration, market supervision departments should strictly enforce the illegalconstruction of disposal of relevantons of the regulations, effective fulfilment of responsibilities,particularly in electricity and watersupply, and otherunits may not benew illegal buildings to supply water and electricity supply.Whil e more regulation toprevent personal privacy violations.Illicit trading in illegal construction in the Ministry of publicsecurity sector to strictly from the blow. Three is to create additional offence reporting systemof incentives.According tobuil ding la w and covof nature, to report timely degree divided re port grade, effective after the removal of certain incentives. (C) integrated implementatibuilt is. To a dhere to thebuilding demolishe d, combinationof construction a nd demolition waste, demolishe d withcombined ef forts to improve thescie ntific level of three to split ; second, we must pay attention to three to split and five hundred and five water treatment, three of the four sides, the shackDistrict transformation, and dangerous old room transformation and two road si des, series workorganic combined up, active do River, and al ong demolition work, and manpower advance village in the, andold re side ntial demolition work, to improved masses housing conditions and live environment; three to put three modified a split as traditional l ow, and small, and bulk industry structure transformationupgrade of important initiatives tocaught, spe ed up advance industry Park, effective optimization park environme nt太阳能电池简介1 太阳能概况太阳能是各种可再生能源中最重要的基本能源，生物质能、风能、海洋能、水能等都来自太阳能，广义地说，太阳能包含以上各种可再生能源。太阳能作为可再生能源的一种，则是指太阳能的直接转化和利用。通过转换装置把太阳辐射能转换成热能利用的属于太阳能热利用技术，再利用热能进行发电的称为太阳能热发电，也属于这一技术领域；通过转换装置把太阳辐射能转换成电能利用的属于太阳能光发电技术，光电转换装置通常是利用半导体器件的光伏效应原理进行光电转换的，因此又称太阳能光伏技术。二十世纪 50 年代，太阳能利用领域出现了两项重大技术突破： 一是 1954 年美国贝尔实验室研制出 6的实用型单晶硅电池，二是 1955 年以色列 Tabor 提出选择性吸收表面概念和理论并研制成功选择性太阳吸收涂层。 这两项技术突破为太阳能利用进入现代发展时期奠定了技术基础。太阳能电池的特性：太阳能电池是一个巨大的PN 结，它把太阳能转换为电能，对于单片太阳能电池来说，它是一个小的PN 结，除了当太阳光照射在上面时，它能够产生电能外，它还具有 PN 结的一切特性。在标准光照条件下，它的额定输出电压为0.48V 。在太阳能照明灯具使用中的太阳能电池组件都是由多片太阳能电池连接构成的。 它具有负的温度系数，温度每上升一度，电压下降 2mV 。对于多片太阳能电池组成的太阳能电池组件， 太阳能电池一般都如下参数： Isc 是短路电流， Im 是峰值电流， Voc 是开路电压。 Vm 是峰值电压， Pm 是峰值功率。在使用中，太阳能电池开路或者短路都不会造成损坏，实际上我们也正是利用它的这个特性对系统蓄电池充放电进行控制的。太阳能电池的选择：我们所说的太阳能电池输出功率 Wp 是标准太阳光照条件下，即：欧洲委员会定义的 101 标准，辐射强度 1000W/m2 ，大气质量 AM1.5 ，电池温度 25 条件下， 太阳能电池的输出功率。 这个条件大约和平时晴天中午前后的太阳光照条件差不多，（在长江下游地区只能接近这个数值）这并不象有些人想象的那样，只要有阳光就会有额定输出功率，甚至认为太阳能电池在夜晚日光灯下也可以正常使用。这就是说，太阳能电池的输出功率是随机的，在不同的时间，不同的地点，同样一块太阳能电池的输出功率是不同的。2 光伏效应光生伏特效应简称为光伏效应， 指光照使不均匀半导体或 半 导体与金属组合的不同部位之间产生电位差的现象。太阳能电池是一种近年发展起来的新型的电池。太阳能利用光电转换原理使太阳的辐射光通过半导体物质转变为电 池 是电 能 的nd improve i dle land of utilization, real achieved environment improved and productivity development mutual pr omoting total win.Five, firmly implement, promoting work ahead, tocreate hig hlights. Third deployment, implementation of seven, then it i s imperative to strengthe n responsibility and improve the mechanisms and implementation.All localities anddepartments mustbe convinced that goals, goi ng all out, mustering spirit,work together to ensure that this years objectives carryout tasks, at the forefront. First, we must strengthen the leadershi p to implement. Departments at all levels should always work and rural five water treatment, three to split in an important position, and carry the main responsi bilit y, main leader personally, leaders arrested and layersof responsibility rank transmission pressure establishedhierarchica l accountability, a nd work together to promote the workof the mechanism, a concerted effort pay attention to implementation.County nongban, flood, three toone down to further play a leaand coordinate d role of all kinds is long, Sheriff Inspector to effectively fulfill their responsibilities, formed the alignment on the fire line and management a lively situation. Second, we must strengthen the test implementatind t he Japanese pulleon of the Governor. Role play the Gover nor got the baton, for agricultural and rural focus and five water treatment, three to split work, refine impropaga nda imove assessment methods and evaluationsystem, accurate assessment. Combined with dare play, tree benchmark style building five major operations, carryon and gain firsthand experience of supervision, in pa rticular, to strengthenhe focus on the long signs go left, names such as supervision, urgedall levels longeron duty inplace.Through the supervisory assessment, to pr omote habits, stimulating power. Third, we must strengthe n implementation style. Departments at all levels to wor k in rural areas and five water treatment, three to split as trainingcadres for major platforms, compete against large examination room, inspectioncadre s workperformance of the ring, water control andthe Japanese pulled a workout, training, discovery and selection of ca dres. Than g ood catch up, first to excellence-oriented.Party members and cadres at all levels must adhere to the rural, water control ad a grass-roots, put down the shelf, leaned pragmaticstyle, the spirit of play, be come abenchmark model. Four, we must strengthen prplementation. Comprehensive utilizationof micro-credit, micro-bl ogging,new media, mining,summarizing, good publicity work i n the countryside and five water treatment, three to splitadvanced models,point to gather positive energy for the community to see the results of our work in time, increase public aware ness, participation rates, satisfaction and support.Play gongqingfu, a mass organization and grass-r oots such as schools, communityThe role ofocusingon ways and meansof improving and upgrading work, further development of three tosplit. (A) fully grasp nouna uthorised created. The township no unauthori sed created the existing building one house hol d, one document survey and file storage work must be unconditional and full coverage. Mai n corridor lea ding to the town (road, river) village, theCentral built-up areaprovisiof the town on both sides must be tocreate a nouna uthorised village.According to five hundred villages created and shanty towns, villages, ol d houses, reconstruction of oldplant,expandcreate, upgradingcreates files, the real no unauthorised village created into the benefit of the people of very good thing. (B) to strictly manage count as unauthori sedcontrols.Promoti ng the new control work to move thecenterof gravity, management measures to ters an areahe front, and ear nestly pipes effectively. Astrict new unauthorise d net work rwith the new regulatory requirements, effective implementation of the areaof responsibility of the new inspections, suppression, demolition work to ensure that the new zero tolerance. Second,public securit y, water, electri city, water, oceans and fisheries, tourism collaboration, market supervision departments should strictly enforce the illegalconstruction of disposal of relevantons of the regulations, effective fulfilment of responsibilities,particularly in electricity and watersupply, and otherunits may not benew illegal buildings to supply water and electricity supply.Whil e more regulation toprevent personal privacy violations.Illicit trading in illegal construction in the Mini stry of publicsecurity sector to strictly from the blow. Three is to create additional offence reporting systemof incentives.According tobuil ding la w and covof nature, to report timely degree divided re port grade, effective after the removal of certain incentives. (C)integrated implementation , building dem olition, modification, use combibuilt is. To a dhere to thebuilding demolishe d, combinationof construction a nd demolition waste, demolishe d withcombined efforts to improve thescie ntific level of three to split ; second, we must pay attention to three to split and five hundred and five water treatment, three of the four sides, the shackDistrict transformation, and dangerous old room transformation and two road si des, series workorganic combined up, active do River, and al ong demolition work, and manpower advance village in the, andold re side ntial demolition work, to improved masses housing conditions and live environment; three to put three modified a splitas traditional l ow, and small, and bulk industry structure transformationupgrade of important initiatives tocaught, spe ed up advance industry Park, effective optimization park environme nt一种器件，这种光电转换过程通常叫做“光生伏打效应” ，因此太阳能电池又称为“光伏电池”，用于太阳能电池的半导体材料是一种介于导体和绝缘体之间的特殊物质，和任何物质的原子一样，半导体的原子也是由带正电的原子核和带负电的电子组成，半导体硅原子的外层有 4 个电子，按固定轨道围绕原子核转动。当受到外来能量的作用时，这些电子就会脱离轨道而成为自由电子，并在原来的位置上留下一个“空穴” ，在纯净的硅晶体中，自由电子和空穴的数目是相等的。如果在硅晶体中掺入硼、镓等元素，由于这些元素能够俘获电子，它就成了空穴型半导体，通常用符号P 表示；如果掺入能够释放电子的磷、砷等元素，它就成了电子型半导体，以符号 N 代表。若把这两种半导体结合，交界面便形成一个 PN 结。太阳能电池的奥妙就在这个“结”上， PN 结就像一堵墙，阻碍着电子和空穴的移动。 当太阳能电池受到阳光照射时， 电子接受光能，向 N 型区移动，使 N 型区带负电，同时空穴向 P 型区移动，使 P 型区带正电。这样，在 PN 结两端便产生了电动势， 也就是通常所说的电压。 这种现象就是上面所说的 “光生伏打效应”。如果这时分别在 P 型层和 N 型层焊上金属导线，接通负载，则外电路便有电流通过，如此形成的一个个电池元件，把它们串联、并联起来，就能产生一定的电压和电流，输出功率。制造太阳电池的半导体材料已知的有十几种，因此太阳电池的种类也很多。目前，技术最成熟，并具有商业价值的太阳电池要算硅太阳电池。太阳能电池就是利用光伏效应将太阳能直接转换为电能的一种装置。 常规太阳电池简单装置如左图所示。当 N 型和 P 型两种不同型号的半导体材料接触后，由于扩散和漂移作用，在界面处形成由 P 型指向 N 型的内建电场。当光照在太阳电池的表面后，能量大于禁带宽度的光子便激发出电子和空穴对，这些非平衡的少数载流子在内电场的作用下分离开，在电池的上下两极累积，这样电池便可以给外界负载提供电流。3 晶硅太阳电池向高效化和薄膜化方向发展单晶硅高效电池单晶硅高效电池的典型代表是斯但福大学的背面点接触电池（PCC），新南威尔士大学（ UNSW ）的钝化发射区电池（ PESC，PERC，PERL 以及德国 Fraumhofer太阳能研究所的局域化背表面场（LBSF）电池等。nd improve idle land of utilization, real achievedenvironment improved and productivitydevelopment mutual pr omoting totalwin.Five, firmly implement, promoting work ahead, tocreate hig hlights. Third deployment,implementation of seven, then it i s imperative to strengthe n responsibility and improve the mechanisms and implementation.All localities anddepartments mustbe convinced that goals, goi ng all out, mustering spirit,work together to ensure that this years objectives carryout tasks, at the forefront. First, we must strengthen the leadership to implement. Departments at all levels shoul d always work and ruralfive water treatment, three to split in an important position, and carry the main responsi bilit y, main leader personally, leaders arrested and layersof responsibility rank transmission pressure establishedhierarchica l accountability, a nd work together to promote the workof the mechanism, a concerted effort pay attention to implementation.County nongban, flood, three toand coordinated role of all kinds is long, Sheriff Inspector to effectively fulfill their responsibilities, formed the alignment on the fire line and management a lively situation. Second, we must strengthen the test implementation of the Governor. Role play the Governor got the baton, for agricultural and rural focus and five water treatment, three to split work, refine impropaga nda imove assessment methods and evaluationsystem, accurate assessment. Combined with dare play, tree benchmark style building five major operations, carryon a nd gain firsthand experience of supervision, i n pa rticular, to strengthen t he focus on the long signs go left, names such as supervision, urgedall levels longeron duty inplace.Through the supervisory assessment, to promote habits, stimulating power. Third, we must strengthe n implementation style. Departments at all levels to wor k in rural areas and five water treatment, three to split as trainingcadres for major platforms, compete against large examination room, inspectioncadre s workperformance of the ring, water control andthe Japanese pulled a workout, training, discovery and selection of ca dres. Than g ood catch up, first to excellence-oriented.Party members and cadres at all levels must adhere to the rural, water control and t he Japanese pulled a grass-r oots, put down the shelf, leaned pragmaticstyle, the spirit of play, be come abenchmark model. Four, we must strengthen prplementation. Compre hensive utilizationof micro-credit, micro-bl ogging,new media, mining,summarizing, good publicity work i n the countryside and five water treatment, three to split advanced models,point to gather positive energy for the community to see theresults of our work in time, increase public aware ness, participation rates, satisfaction and support.Play gongqingfu, a mass organization and grass-r oots such as schools, communityThe role of。（ 1） 新南威尔士大学高效电池；（ 2） 斯但福大学的背面点接触电池（ PCC）（ 3） 德国 Fraunhofer 太阳能研究所的深结局部背场电池（ LBSF）（ 4） 日本 SHARP 的 C 一 Si c-Si 异质 pp + 结高效电池多晶硅高效电池多晶硅太阳电他的出现主要是为了降低成本， 其优点是能直接制备出适于规模化生产的大尺寸方型硅锭，设备比较简单，制造过程简单、省电、节约硅材料，对材质要求也较低。晶界及杂质影响可通过电池加工工艺进行改善；由于材质和晶界影响，电池效率较低。电池工艺主要采用吸杂、钝化、背场等技术。常规铝吸杂工艺是在电池的背面蒸镀铝膜后经过烧结形成， 也可同时形成电池的背场。近几年在吸杂上的工作证明，它对高效单晶硅太阳电池及多晶硅太阳电池都会产生一定的作用。钝化是提高多晶硅质量的有效方法。一种方法是采用氢钝化，钝化硅体内的悬挂键等缺陷。在晶体生长中受应力等影响造成缺陷越多的硅材料，氢钝化的效果越好。氢钝化可采用离子注入或等离子体处理。在多晶硅太阳电池表面采用 PECVD 法镀上一层氮化硅减反射膜，由于硅烷分解时产生氢离子，对多晶硅可产生氢钝化的效果。在高效太阳电池上常采用表面氧钝化的技术来提高太阳电他的效率，近年来在光伏级的晶体硅材料上使用也有明显的效果，尤其采用热氧化法效果更明显。使用 PECVD 法在更低的温度下进行表面氧化，近年来也被使用，具有一定的效果。多晶硅太阳电池的表面由于存在多种晶向，不如（ 100 ）晶向的单晶硅那样能经由腐蚀得到理想的绒面结构， 因而对其表面进行各种处理以达减反射的作用也为近期研究目标，其中采用多刀砂轮进行表面刻槽，对 10cmX10cm 面积硅片的工序时间可降到30 秒，具有了一定的实用潜力。多孔硅作为多晶硅太阳电池的减反射膜具有实用意义，其减反射的作用已能与双重减反射膜相比，所得多晶硅电池的效率也能达到13 。4。（ 1） Geogia Tech 电池（ 2） UNSw 电池（ 3） Kysera 电池多晶硅薄膜电池为了大幅度降低太阳电池的成本，光伏界一直在研究开发薄膜电池，并先后开发出非晶硅薄膜电他，硫化镐（ CdTe）电池，铜钢硒（ C1S）电池等。特别是非晶硅电池，（ 1） CVD 多晶硅薄膜电池（ 2） 多层多晶硅薄膜电池-可编辑修改 -ocusingon ways and meansof improving and upgrading work, further development of three tosplit. (A) fully grasp nouna uthorised created. The township no unauthori sed created the existing building one house hol d, one document survey and file storage work must be unconditional and full coverage. Mai n corridor lea ding to the town (road, river) village, theCentral built-up areaprovisiof the town on both sides must be tocreate a nouna uthorised village.According to five hundred villages created and shanty towns, villages, ol d houses, reconstruction of oldplant,expandcreate, upgradingcreates files, the real no unauthorised village created into the benefit of the people of very good thing. (B) to strictly manage count as unauthori sedcontrols.Promoting the new control work to move thecenterof gravity, management measures to ters an areahe front, and ear nestly pipes effectively. Astrict new unautwith the new regulatory requirements, effective implementation of the areaof responsibility of the new inspections, suppression, demolition work to ensure that the new zero tolerance. Second,public securit y, water, electri city, water, oceans and fisheries, tourism collaboration, market supervision departments should strictly enforce the illegalconstruction of disposal of relevantons of the regulations, effective fulfilment of responsibilities,particularly in electricity and watersupply, and otherunits may not benew illegal buildings to supply water and electricity supply.Whil e more regulation toprevent personal privacy violations.Illicit trading in illegal construction in the Mini stry of publicsecurity sector to strictly from the blow. Three is to create additional offence reporting systemof incentives.According tobuil ding la w and covof nature, to report timely degree divided re port grade, effective after the removal of certain incentives. (C)integrated implementation , building dem olition, modification, use combibuilt is. To a dhere to thebuilding demolishe d, combinationof construction a nd demolition waste, demolishe d withcombined efforts to improve thescie ntific level of three to split ; second, we must pay attention to three to split and five hundred and five water treatment, three of the four sides, the shackDistrict transformation, and dangerous old room transformation and two road si des, series workorganic combined up, active do River, and al ong demolition work, and manpower advance village in the, andold re side ntial demolition work, to improved masses housing conditions and live environment; three to put three modified a splitas traditional l ow, and small, and bulk industry structure transformationupgrade of important initiatives tocaught, spe ed up advance industry Park, effective optimization park environme nt目前太阳能电池的封装形式主要有 2 种，层压和滴胶， 层压工艺可以保证太阳能电池工作寿命 25 年以上，滴胶虽然当时美观，但是太阳能电池工作寿命仅仅 12 年。因此，1W 以下的小功率太阳能草坪灯 ,在没有过高寿命要求的情况下， 可以使用滴胶封装形式，对于使用年限有规定的太阳能灯，建议使用层压的封装形式。另外，有一种硅凝胶用于滴胶封装太阳能电池，据说工作寿命可以达到 10 年。太阳能发电系统光伏发电系统分为独立型与并网型。1 独立型太阳能交流发电系统一般包括以下几个部分： 太阳电池阵列：按一定方式排列和连结组合的太阳电池组件， 以及支撑这些组件的支架和基础。储能电池：根据使用要求， 可以是不同种类的可充电电池。控制器：用于控制太阳电池阵列给储能电池充电过程的设备，它具有各种保护功能，可以确保系统安全稳定的连续运行。 逆变器，输入从储能电池来的直流电， 输出所需要的交流电