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,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,TEXT,Growing Inequality,The degree of income inequality varies greatly from region to region. It is greatest in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, and lowest in Eastern Europe; other regions fall between these two extremes. In Latin America, the average Gini coefficientthe most commonly used measure of inequality, with 0 representing perfect equality and 1 representing total inequalityis almost 0.5. The average Gini coefficient in sub-Saharan Africa is slightly lower, but there is considerable variation among countries. Income inequality has a regional dimension in both Africa and Latin Americaaverage incomes are significantly higher in urban areas than in rural areas.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,In recent years, income inequality has been increasing in a large number of countries. This increase has been most striking in the transition economies, where the average Gini coefficient had been around 0.25 until the late 1980s; by the mid1990s, it had risen to more than 0.30. While this may not appear to be a large increase, it is quite significant for the short period being assessed. Gini coefficients tend to be relatively stable in countries over long periods. Income inequality has also increased in several major industrial countries and is beginning to increase in some East Asian countries.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Much of the debate about income distribution has centered on wage earnings. But wages tell only part of the story. The distribution of wealth (and, by implication, capital income) is more concentrated than labor income. In Africa and Latin America, unequal ownership of land has been identified as an important factor in the overall distribution of income. Furthermore, in recent years, there has been a shift from labor to capital income (including income from self employment) in many countries. In transition countries, this shift has been due primarily to the privatization of state-owned assets. The analysis of trends in nonlabor income in countries with well developed capital markets and pension funds is more complicated. Pension funds and other financial institutions receive a sizable portion of capital income, and the share of capital income in total household income typically changes over the life cycle of the individuals in each household.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Is Globalization the Cause?,Globalization has linked the labor, product, and capital markets of economies around the world. Increased trade, capital and labor movements, and technological progress have led to greater specialization in production and the dispersion of specialized production processes to geographically distant locations. Developing countries, with their abundant supply of unskilled labor, have a comparative advantage relative to developed countries in the production of unskilled-labor-intensive goods and services. As a result, production of these products in developed countries has come under increased competitive pressure. Economic theory tells us this should apply downward pressure on the relative compensation of unskilled workers in developed countries and upward pressure on the compensation of their counterparts in developing countries.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Based on this theory, some authors have claimed that globalization is to blame for growing income inequality in developed countries. Others argue that the widening gap between the wages of skilled workers and unskilled workers in the developed countries is due to the development and dispersion of skill-intensive technologies rather than to increased trade. Several empirical studies have tried to gauge the relative importance of both trade and technological progress in the decline of relative wages of unskilled workers in developed countries. Estimates of the contribution of increased trade to the total increase of the wage differential between unskilled and skilled workers range from negligible to 50 percent. This large variation is a function of the structure of production in developed countries and the share of their labor market that is in direct competition with low-skilled workers in developing countries.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,The debate regarding the effect of globalization on income distribution in developing countries mirrors the debate on developed countries. Although, all other things being equal, increased openness would be expected to increase the relative wages of unskilled workers in developing countries, experience has been mixed. Evidence suggests that the relative wages of unskilled workers increased in East Asian countries in the 1960s and 1970s but decreased in Latin America in the 1980s and early 1990s. There are two possible explanations for why wages fell in Latin America: first, the opening up of developing Asian countriesBangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, and Pakistanwhere unskilled labor is even more abundant; second, the availability of new production technologies that are biased toward skilled labor.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,The effect globalization has on income distribution seems to be determined to some extent by a countrys level of development and the technologies available to it. Similarly, exposure to international competition may change institutions (for example, trade unions) and thereby affect income distribution. Some observers contend that, because of the mobility of capital, globalization limits the ability of union workers to achieve a “union wage premium,” thus decreasing the bargaining power of workers vis-,-vis capital. In addition, globalization may lead to sharp short-run changes in the distribution of income, as barriers to trade are reduced and the distribution of production is reallocated among sectors.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,It is often argued that globalization makes it more difficult for governments to implement equitable policies. Increasingly mobile capital and labor have limited the ability of governments to levy taxes and transfer income to those affected by globalization. To the extent that capital is more mobile than labor, the incidence of taxes to finance safety nets for those affected by globalization is shifted to labor.,Policy Responses,The extent to which countries have focused on promoting equity and the strategies they have adopted vary widely. Some countries have actively promoted the use of public resources to raise the incomes of those on the bottom tier of the income distribution. Others have focused on the top percentiles by levying highly progressive taxes. Yet others, concerned that policies targeting the poor may result in economic inefficiencies and distortions that retard growth, have taken an indirect approach, seeking to help lowincome families by stimulating overall economic growth.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,In Latin America during the 1980s, the primary goal of policymakers was achieving sustainable growth, and a viable balance of payments and structural reforms were seen as critical to achieving this goal. Growth has also been one of the primary goals of the transition economies, but their strategies have included policies aimed at helping groups likely to be hurt by the transition. Such policies have included the distribution of shares of privatized enterprises, the adaptation of social policy instruments to protect vulnerable groups, and the establishment of social safety nets (for example, targeted subsidies, cash compensation in lieu of subsidies, severance pay and retraining for retrenched public sector employees, and public works programs). However, the lack of budgetary resources has made implementation of these policies difficult.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Fiscal policytaxation and spendingis a governments most direct tool for redistributing income, in both the short and the long run. However, the effect of redistributive tax policies, especially in the face of globalization, has been small. Policymakers should focus on developing a broadly based, efficient, and easily administered tax system with moderate marginal rates. Although the primary goal of the tax system should be to promote efficiency, policymakers also need to consider how to distribute the burden of taxation so the system is seen as fair and just.,The expenditure side of the budget offers better opportunities than the tax side for redistributing income. The link between income distribution and social spendingespecially spending on health and education, through which governments can influence the formation and distribution of human capitalis particularly strong, and public investment in the human capital of the poor can be an efficient way to reduce income inequality over the long run.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,The amount of resources governments can and should devote to social expenditures depends on various factors, including the tax-to-GDP ratio and the resources devoted to other spending. Public expenditures should displace private expenditures only when they yield higher social benefits. Priority should be given to the most productive public expenditures, and unproductive public expendituresfor example, excessive military spending, wages for an over-staffed civil service, and budgetary transfers to inefficient public enterprisesshould be curtailed. Civil service reform and the privatization of services that can be better provided by the private sectorespecially if accompanied by a reallocation of expenditures to the social sectorsare likely to be both growth- and equity-enhancing, particularly in developing countries, where public sector employees come primarily from the middle- and upper-middle-income classes.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Outlays on health and education can improve the existing pattern of income distribution, depending to a large extent on their allocation within sectors and who receives the benefits. Studies show that spending on basic health care and primary education is far more effective in reaching the poor than spending on higher education or hospital-based curative care; the former reduces disparities in human capital across income groups and can decrease income inequality in the long run (see “Public Spending on Human Development,” by Sanjeev Gupta, Benedict Clements, and Erwin Tiongson in this issue). Studies also show that, in countries without some form of health risk pooling, serious illnesses are the single most important factor driving families into poverty.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Although fiscal policy is usually viewed as the principal vehicle for assisting low-income groups and those affected by reform programs, a number of countries have introduced specific labor market policies in an effort to influence income distribution, the rationale being that relative wages exert a strong influence on overall income inequality. Many European countries have opted for high minimum wages, generous unemployment benefits, and a wide range of job-protection measures. Although these policies can result in rigidities, advocates maintain that they help achieve a socially desirable redistribution of income, while opponents argue that they discourage new investment and dampen job creation and growth. The United States, which has opted for more flexible labor markets, has achieved high employment levels, but the cost may be greater income inequality. To mitigate the potential effect of market flexibility on low-wage workers, the United States has introduced wage subsidies that,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,simultaneously redistribute income and promote employment. Given the potentially large impact of labor market policies on earnings, these competing visions of the labor market are central to the debate over income inequality in many developing and newly industrialized countries.,Governments can also indirectly affect income levels and distribution through monetary policy and their overall macroeconomic stance. For example, high inflation tends to curtail economic growth and increase income inequality. Trade liberalizationespecially when it occurs in developing countries that have had restrictive trade policies, such as taxation of agricultural exports and protective tariffs on importsmay boost economic growth and lead to more equitable conditions. Currency devaluations may also have implications for equity, particularly in low-income countries, where the poor are often concentrated in the agriculture-intensive export sector and middle- and upper-income urban dwellers tend to be more dependent on imports.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Another important issue is whether governments should focus on outcomessuch as decreasing the number of people living in povertyor on ensuring that all members of society have equal opportunities. In extreme cases of income inequality, outcomes are clearly critical. In other cases, setting up a level playing field may be all that is necessary, and greater emphasis can be placed on policies that facilitate mobility between income classes and on ensuring that income and wealth are acquired justly and fairly. Measures governments can take to promote equality of opportunity include deregulating the economy; setting up strong, accountable institutions, including a well-functioning judicial system; reducing opportunities for corrupt practices (curbing corruption can directly reduce income inequality, because the gains from corrupt practices tend to be captured by the well-to-do); and providing adequate access to health and education services.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Governments seeking to implement equity-oriented policies face a number of obstacles. First and foremost is the financing required: high levels of spending on targeted programs may not be consistent with a sustainable macroeconomic framework. Second, governments in many developing countries, where a large share of the population is engaged in rural and informal sector activities, may be unable to reach the most vulnerable groups. The rural and informal sectors may have limited interaction with formal sector institutions, including the government, making the delivery of government assistance (for example, cash transfers) problematic. In a similar vein, a lack of administrative capacity may hamper redistributive efforts; for example, tax evasion is a severe problem in countries with weak tax administration, making it difficult for governments to use the tax system as a vehicle to finance redistributive policies. Political constraintslow-income groups typically have less political power than other,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,interest groupsmay impede efforts to reallocate spending toward the poor or redistribute land or other assets to them. Legal impediments may also prevent governments from taking measures to promote equityfor example, constitutional rules on revenue sharing may limit the amount of resources a central government can allocate to redistributive policies.,(excerpted from,Finance & Development, September 1998),Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,Exercises,. Translate the following into English, using the words or phrases in the text:,1. 衡量收入分配的最常用的指标,the most commonly used measures of income distribution,2. 从劳动力市场向资本市场的转移,the shift from labour to capital markets,3. 生产专业化和专业化生产过程的扩散,specialization in production and the dispersion of,specialized production processes,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,4. 熟练工与非熟练工之间日益拉大的工资差距,5. 偏向于技术劳动力的新生产技术,new production techniques biased toward skilled labor,6. 阻碍增长的经济无效率和扭曲,economic inefficiency and distortions retarding growth,7. 可持续增长和可行的收支政策,sustainable growth and a viable balance-of-payments policy,the widening gap between the wages of skilled workers and those,of unskilled workers,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,8. 具有广泛基础的、有效而易于管理的税收体系,9. 减少不同收入集团人力资本的明显差异,reduce disparities in human capital across income groups,10. 与宏观经济规划相一致的既定项目,targeted programs consistent with the macroeconomic framework,11. 关于财政收入分配的宪法原则,constitutional rules on revenue sharing,a broadly-based, efficient and easily administered tax system,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,12. 通过解除经济的规定管制来促进机会平等,13. 取代津贴的现金补偿,cash compensation in lieu of subsidies,14. 刺激公共资源利用和整体经济增长,stimulate the use of public resources and the overall,economic growth,15. 采取有效措施促进就业和公平,take effective measures to promote employment and equity,to promote equality of opportunities through deregulating economy,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,. Translate the following sentences into English:,1.,关于收入分配的大部分辩论集中在工资收入上，它被认为是整体收入分配的一个重要因素。但在非洲和拉丁美洲，不平等的土地所有权是一个不可忽略的因素。(center on),Much of the debate about income distribution has centered on wage earnings, which has been identified as an important factor in the overall distribution of incomes. But in Africa and Latin America, unequal ownership of land is a factor that cannot be ignored.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,2. 全球化将全世界各经济体的劳动力、产品和资本市场连接起来，并间接导致生产专业化和专业化生产过程向地理位置遥远地区扩散。(dispersion),Globalization has linked the labor, product and capital markets of the economies around the world and has indirectly led to greater specialization in production and the dispersion of specialized production processes to geographically distant locations.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,3. 尽管财政政策被视为帮助低收入人群和受改革计划影响的人们的主要工具，许多国家采取了具体的劳动力市场政策来试图影响收入分配。(in an effort to),Although fiscal policies are usually viewed as the principal vehicle for assisting lowincome groups and those affected by reform programs, quite a number of countries have adopted specific labor market policies in an effort to influence income distribution.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,4. 政府所能采取的促进机会均等的措施包括：取消对经济的规定管制；建立包括运作良好的司法体系在内的强有力的，负责任的机构；减少腐败行为的机会；提供获得健康和教育服务的充足机会等。(deregulate),Measures governments can take to promote equality of opportunities include deregulating the economy; setting up strong and responsible institutions, including a wellfunctioning judicial system; reducing opportunities for corrupt practices; and providing adequate access to health and education services.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,5. 另一个重要问题是政府是否应该关注结果，比如减少贫困人数，或保证每个人都有公平的机会。(ensure),Another important issue is whether governments should focus on outcomessuch as decreasing the number of people living in poverty, or ensuring that all members of society have equal opportunities.,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,. Put the following passage into English:,有一种关于财富分配的理论表明，不合理的分配和腐败是造成收入水平不公的主要原因。这一理论认为，财富要经历4个分配阶段市场、政府、非政府组织、以及主要表现为腐败的非法活动。通常第一个分配阶段市场会导致资源分布不均，而这应该由第二个分配阶段，即政府，来纠正。在第三个阶段，财富的分配是通过非政府部门的捐赠来实现的。捐款是以慈善活动的形式赠予穷人的。接着便是对财富的非法掠夺，如抢劫、贪污、逃税和贿赂。这些对社会的公平和稳定所造成的伤害是巨大的，而且是无法测量的。,Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?,One theory on wealth distribution indicates that irrational distribution and corruption are the major reasons for the uneven income level. According to this theory, wealth goes through four stages of distributionthe market, the government, non-governmental organizations and unlawful activities, mainly corruption. Usually the first stage of distributionthe marketwill result in an uneven spread of resources, which should be redressed by the second distribution stage, the government. In the third stage, the distribution o
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