欧洲文化入门第三章

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,*,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,European Culture An Introduction,Division Three,The Middle Ages,The Middle Ages,. General Introduction,. Manor and Church,. Learning and Science,. Literature,. Art and Architecture,I. General Introduction,In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the,Middle Ages.,The Middle Ages is also called the,“Age of Faith”,：,During,the Medieval times,(,中世纪,) there was no central government to keep the order.,The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was,the Christian church,.,基督教会,It continued to gain widespread power and influence.,In,the Late Middle Ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of Christian church. Christianity took the lead in,politics, law, art, and learning,for hundreds of years. It shaped people s lives.,II. Manor,采邑制,/,领地制,and Church,Feudalism,The Church,The Crusades,Feudalism,Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding a system of holding land in exchange for military service.,Growth of Feudalism,When the western Roman Empire grew weak, people lived in constant danger of,attacts,from invaders and robbers. Owners of small farms sought protection from large land-owners, by giving them land and services. In return the large landowners promised to protect the landless peasants and their families.,Then in 732 Charles Martel, a Frankish ruler gave his solders estates known as fiefs as a reward for their service. After 800, the kings in Europe were usually very weak. Some nobles grew more powerful than the king, and became independent rulers.,The Manor,The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. Some lords owned only one manor; others owned many. They lived in a manor house. By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.,Knighthood and Code of Chivalry,骑士制度,Almost all nobles were knights in the Medieval days. But no one was born a knight.,A noble began his education as a page at the age of seven. He was taught to say his prayers, learned good manners and ran errands for the ladies. at about fourteen, the page became a squire or assistant to a knight who became his master. He was taught the duties of a knight and practiced using a sward, lance and shield. He went into battle with his master. If the squire proved to be a good fighter, he would be made a knight at a special ceremony known as dubbing.,As a knight, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry.,The Church,The Organization of Church,Church Father and Early Monasticism,修道院制度,The Power and Influence of the Catholic Church,After 1054, the Church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church,天主教会,and the Eastern Orthodox Church,东正教会,. In order to develop a civilization based on Christianity, the Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage of the Roman Empire.,The Organization of Church,The Catholic Church was a highly centralized and disciplined international organization.,Pope,(supreme head),Religious Orders,1. military monastic,2. lived in monasteries (abbeys) governed by abbots,Archbishops,(province),Collection of Cardinals,1.elected pope,2.served as advisors,3.next in power to pope,Bishops,(diocese),Priests,(parish),Lay Members of Catholic Church,Church Fathers and Early Monasticism,修道院制度,In the beginning the controversy was mainly over the place of Christ in the trinity-Power (the Father), wisdom (the Son) and Love (the Holy Spirit).,圣父，圣子 与圣灵,A notable champion of early monasticism was St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testaments from the Hebrew and Greek originals.,The most important of all the leaders of Christian thought was Augustine of Hippo who lived in North Africa in the fifth century. “The Confession” and “The City of God” by him are masterpieces of world renown.,Another great early monk was St. Benedict who founded Benedictine Rule about 529A. D.,The Power and Influence of the Catholic Church,Under feudalism, people of western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords and peasants.,The Medieval Church was the centre of daily life in the country and town alike, and it had a part in all important events.,The Crusades,十字军远征（现当代冲突的根源）,The Crusades: a series of holy wars.,Eight chief Crusades:,First Crusade-1096-1099,Second Crusade-1147-1149,Third Crusade-1189-1192,Fourth Crusade-1202-1204,Fifth Crusade-1218-1221,Sixth Crusade-1228-1229,Seventh Crusade-1248-1254,Eighth Crude-1270,During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies.,The crusades also resulted in renewing peoples interest in learning and invention.,.,Learning and Science,Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance,Alfred the Great and,Wessex,Centre of Learning,St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism,Roger Bacon and Experimental Science,Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance,Charlemagne,查理曼大帝,(742-814), among many other things he did, he encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools, giving support to scholars and setting scribes to work coping various ancient books.,The result of Charlemagnes effort is usually called the “Carolingian Renaissance”,Alfred the Great and,Wessex,Centre of Learning,Alfred the Great,阿尔弗雷德大帝,(849-899), ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of,Wessex, worried about the disappearance of learning and made,Wessex,the Anglo-Saxon cultural centre by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from Latin works.,St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism,St. Thomas Aquinas,圣托马斯阿奎那,(1225-1274) was an Italian Philosopher and theologian, the supreme figure in scholasticism, the medieval philosophical effort to harmonize faith and reason.,Works:,Summa Contra,Ventiles, Summa,Theologica,Roger Bacon and Experimental Science,Roger Bacon,罗吉尔,培根,(about 1220-1292), a monk, was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research. He called for careful observation and experimentation.,Work:,Opus,maius,论科学的发展,IV. Literature,National Epics,Dante Alighieri and,The Divine Comedy,Geoffery Chaucer and,The Canterbury Tales,National Epics,National epic refers to the epic written in vernacular languages-that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages.,a. Beowulf,贝尔沃夫,b. Song of Roland (about 12century A.D.),罗兰之歌,About,The Song of Beowulf,The Song of Beowulf, or simply called,Beowulf, is worth remembering for it is the first national epic written in national language rather than in Latin in the history of Europe. The Anglo-Saxons made their greatest contribution to the world culture and civilization in using vernacular language.,The only existing manuscript of,The Song of Beowulf,was written by an unknown scribe at the beginning of the 10th century and was not discovered until 1705. The poem was composed much earlier in oral form, reflecting events which took place on the Continent approximately at the beginning of the 6th century, when the forefathers of the Jutes lived in the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula and maintained close relations with kindred tribes, e.g. with the Danes who lived on the other side of the straits.,The Song of Beowulf,consists of 3182 lines and is divided into two parts. It describes the deeds of the hero Beowulf. The story goes like this.,Hrothgar, the King of the Danes, built a magnificent hall to which he gave the name of,Heorot,. While the Danes were feasting in this famous hall,Grendel, a half-human monster, came from the moor, burst in upon them, injured and killed thirty warriors, and then rushed off into the darkness. For twelve years this monster kept harrying the warriors so that even the bravest warriors were afraid to enter the hall. Beowulf heard of this and sailed with his warriors to,Heorot,. He persuaded the Danes to feast with him in the hall. After they had fallen asleep there,Grendel,came, seized one warrior and devoured him. Then he grasped Beowulf. Beowulf fought the fearful monster bravely, grappling with him, wrestling up and down the hall, overturning the tables and made the vast hall tremble like an earthquake. Finally Beowulf tore away an arm and shoulder of the monster, who rushed out to the marshes to die.,The next night a banquet was given in honor of Beowulf. After the feast, the warriors slept in the hall. Beowulf went to the palace. Soon,Grendels,mother rushed in to avenge the death of her son. She seized a warrior, the kings dearest friend, and carried him away.,Beowulf followed the bloody trail of,Grendels,mother to the terrible flood. He grasped a sword and plunged into the waves. In the great depth of the water, he saw,Grendels,mother, who came forward to meet him and dragged him into her dwelling, where there was no water and they began to fight. At last, with a gigantic sword, Beowulf killed her who fell down not far away from the dead body of,Grendel,. Beowulf cut off the heads of,Grendel,and his mother and left for,Hrothgars,court, where he received much praise and many presents. Beowulf sailed homeward with his warriors and he ruled as king for fifty years.,The closing part of the poem tells now one of Beowulfs subjects stole some of the treasure which a fire dragon had been guarding in a cavern for three hundred years. The enraged monster with his fiery breath laid waste the land. Beowulf sought the dragon in his cavern and after a terrible fight slew the monster, but was himself mortally wounded and died after seeing in the cavern the heaps of treasure which he had won for his people. The dying hero was glad to learn that with his death he has gained more wealth for his people. He instructed,Wiglaf, who was to succeed him, how to bury his body and how to rule the country after his death. His last words were full of care for the future of his land. According to Beowulfs last will, the people of Jutland built a large bonfire on a headland which stretched far into the sea and cremated his body. Then they laid all the treasures from the dragons cave with Beowulfs ashes to show that the gold could in no way compensate their great loss, and buried them under a tremendous mound. They piled the earth and stones so high that, in accordance with Beowulfs will, the mound thereafter became a beacon for the seafarers who sailed along the coast. Thus, even after his death, Beowulf continued to serve the people.,Comment,It is not difficult to see that the Anglo-Saxons were very proud of their national hero so that they passed down this story from mouth to mouth until finally it was written down. In this story they poured out their full-hearted love for a ruler who fought for the good of the people fearing no difficulty and enemy. Even before his death he still thought about telling his successor how to rule and serve the people. Even after his death he willed that he would serve to guide people on their journey and voyages. From this story one can see the wishes of the English people for an able and kind ruler. After the great epics of Homer, namely,Iliad,and,Odyssey,The Song of Beowulf,became the first monumental epic that was written in the vernacular language of a nation. It is the pride of national literature. And this is the most important reason why this work is never neglected in all anthologies of English literature.,The Features of,Beowulf,1. It emphasizes stress. Number of stresses, not number of syllables, is important. Normally, there are four stressed syllables in each line and at least three of these syllables alliterate.,2. Each line is divided into two halves. Each half has two strongly-accented syllables, At least one of the stressed syllables in the first half-line must alliterate with the first accented syllable in the second half-1ine.,3. A lot of metaphors and understatements are used in the poem, for example, the sea is referred to as the whale-road or the swan-road,；,human-body is called the bone-house. The epic presents an all-round picture of the tribal society. One can see the social conditions and customs of that period. So, the epic is also a poem of great social significance.,Dante Alighieri and,The Divine Comedy,Dante Alighieri,但丁,(1265-1321) was the greatest poet of Italy and also a prose writer, literary theorist, moral philosopher as well as political thinker.,Masterpiece:,The Divine Comedy,神曲,Geoffery Chaucer and,The Canterbury Tales,Chaucer,乔叟,(1340-1400) was an English poet, a full-blown flower of English medieval literature.,The Canterbury Tales,坎特伯雷故事集,contains twenty-four tales told by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury.,1. Life,Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) was called the “father of English poetry” and one of the greatest narrative poets of England. He translated many poems from French, learned a lot from Italian poetry and invented many poetic meters and forms which were to be widely used later.,2. Works and Division of Periods in His Literary Career,Chaucers literary career can be divided into three periods, coinciding with his life experiences,：,the first being one of translation from French (e. g.,The Romance of the Rose,), the second being one of adaption from the Italian (e. g.,Troilus and Criseyde, modeling on Boccaccios works), the third being one of creation in purely English with,The Canterbury Tales,as the masterpiece of his whole literary career. On this monumental work he spent 15 years, beginning from 1386. In the first period, Chaucer tried his hand on meter, 1anguage and subject. In the second period, he borrowed foreign themes but showed his own creativeness. In the third period, he had his own choice of subject, depiction of characters, diction and plot.,3. Comment,Chaucer was a mirror of the times. His works reflected vividly the changes that had taken root in English culture of the second half of the 14th century. The foundations of the feudal system had already begun to crumble. The peoples uprising of 1388 raised the question as to the abolition of feudalism. The glory of the Catholic Church was on the wane. England was on the brink of a great historical change. And it is at this historical moment that Chaucers poetry traces out a path to the literature of English Renaissance.,Chaucer was a transitional figure in that he, in some aspects of his works, was still bound to the traditions of the Middle Ages and many of his poems were written in the manner of the French poets who enjoyed great popularity among the nobility. And in his translation of various works of French authors, he was still attracted by the form of vision so favored in the Middle Ages. It is characteristic, however, that his allegories and symbols are already tinged with realistic images. He is drawn to everything that is earthly, tangible and human.,4. The Importance and Contribution of Chaucer,Chaucer was the most important poet of England of that age and his contribution can be seen as follows.,First, his contribution to English poetry is beyond words. He introduced European air into England, bringing the French and Italian humanistic thoughts to England, which served as a bridge between European Renaissance and England thus preparing the way of Renaissance in England. His work is permeated with lively and swift free-thinking, so characteristic of the age of Renaissance because of which he can be rightly called the immediate forerunner of the English renaissance. He believes in the right of man to earthly happiness. He is anxious to see man freed from superstitions and a blind belief in fate. He is always keen to praise mans energy, intellect, quick wit and love for life.,Second, he greatly enriched the rhyme schemes by introducing from France the rhymed stanzas of various types. The rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter is the form he was most at home with. Alliterative verse of the O1d English period was to give way to new poetic forms.,Third, with his,Canterbury Tales, he declared the greatness of national literature.,Fourth, his use of London dialect promoted the position of language used by common people and refined it into an acceptable literary one. Thus he established a 1anguage of literature. And the language he used is vivid and smooth, which, together with the rhymed couplet, makes a very easy and good reading. This is a contribution in constructing a nations vernacular literature.,Fifth, with his vivid portrait of people of all walks of life, he began the realistic tradition. He created a strikingly brilliant and picturesque panorama of his time and his country. In this poem his realism, trenchant irony and freedom of views reached such a high level of power that it had no equal in all the English literature up to the 16th century. Owing to the true-to-life depiction of characters and the broad reflection of the whole society, Chaucer was properly and rightly praised by Gorky as “founder of English realism.,The Canterbury Tales,has its social significance in several ways. First, it represents the spirit of the rising bourgeoisie. Peoples right to pursue earthly happiness is affirmed by Chaucer. Second, the ideas of humanism are shown in Chaucers praising of mans energy, intellect, wit and love of life. Third, Chaucer exposed and satirized the evils of the time. Fourth, the corruption of the Church is vigorously attacked. Fifth, Chaucer showed sympathy for the poor to some extent.,5. About,The Canterbury Tales,The Canterbury Tales,consists of about 17000 lines. It displays his acceptance and influence he received from Boccaccios,Decameron, which describes the stories told by some ladies and young men who were fleeing the Black Death. These two works, in some sense, become the archetype of such fashion.,The whole poem is a collection of tales and stories told by people of different background of that time. On a fine spring morning, the poet who stays in the Tabard inn in,Southwark,at the south end of London Bridge joins some pilgrims bound for Canterbury. The host of the inn goes too. The host suggests that their company of 30 people tell stories to kill time during the journey. And he acts as the judge. Each is to tell two stories while going and two while returning. Thus there should be 120 stories, but actually only 24 were written. All but two of these tales are in verse.,The tales cover all the major types of medieval literature,：,romances of knights and ladies, folk tales, animal stories, stories of travel and adventure, and others. Perhaps the “marriage group” is more worth reading. The Prologue is worth special mentioning because it is the first of such kind. It provides a framework of this long poem. Like the hosts comments on and steering of the story-telling, the Pro1ogue also serves to connect the individual stories. In this Prologue are included vivid sketches of typical medieval figures. The prologue is a miniature of the English society of Chaucers time. In order to have a good understanding of the who1e poem, it is advised that one should refer frequently to the Prologue.,.Art and Architecture,Romanesque,Gothic,Romanesque,Romanesque means in the Roman manner.,Romanesque art is predominantly religious. Architecture is characterized by massiveness, solidity, and monumentality with an overall blocky appearance.,Gothic,哥特式建筑风格,The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Roman