生产和企业组织课件

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,生产和企业组织,第6章,生产理论和边际产品,6.1,生产系统,Firms,Labor,Capital,Resource,Good,1,Service,1,Good,n,Service,n,3,生产函数,The,production function,specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs.,It is defined for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge.,It looks like this:,Q,=,F,(,K,L,R,),4,Q,= F(,K,L,R,),Q,is the quantity of some products you want to produce.,K,is the capital or plant and equipment that you will need for the production.,L,is the number of employees or quantity of labor.,R,is a catch-all (,包括所有的,) term for other things like raw materials (,原料,) and energy.,F,is the state of the current technology.,5,专业术语,The production function specifies the,maximum output that can be produced,with a given quantity of inputs for,a given state of engineering and technical knowledge,.,要点：给定投入时的各个可能的产量中,最大的产量,。在,给定的,工程和技术知识条件下。,6,总产量和平均产量,Total product,designates the total amount of output produced in physical units.,Average product,equals total product divided by total units of input.,说明：平均产量通常是指某一种投入要素的平均产量。,7,边际产量,The,marginal product,(,边际产量,) of an input such as labor is the extra output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are hold constant.,其他要素保持不变，一种投入要素增加一单位，带来的产出的增加量。,8,边际产量图示,Firm,Q,+,MP,Add 1 unit of some input and hold other inputs constant,The MP is extra output.,K,L,R,+,1,9,最大产出,劳动的边际产量,的含义是：投入,N+1,单位劳动时的最大产量与投入,N,单位劳动时的最大产量之差。,增加,1,单位劳动后，所有的分工都要按最优方式重新安排，然后得出投入,N+1,劳动的产出水平。,10,4000,3000,2000,1000,3000,2000,1000,0,1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3,4,5,Labor,Labor,Marginal product (per unit of labor),Total product,11,报酬递减定律,Under the,law of diminishing returns, a firm will get less and less extra output when it adds additional units of an input while holding other inputs fixed. In other words, the marginal product of each unit of input will decline as the amount of that input increases, holding all other inputs constant.,12,13,Units of labor,Total product,Marginal product,Average product,0,0,1,2000,2000,2,3000,1500,3,3500,1167,4,3800,950,5,3900,780,2000,1000,500,300,100,14,边际产量和总产量的关系,产量,劳动力,总产量加速上升,边际产量最大时，总产量上升最快。,总产量,边际产量,总产量下降,总产量减速上升,边际产量为,0,时，总产量最大。,15,平均产量和总产量的关系,产量,劳动力,平均产量增大,平均产量最大,阶段,总产量,平均产量,总产量下降,阶段,阶段,平均产量减小,16,生产的比例性,生产要求投入多种要素，而且要素之间通常有一定的比例性要求。有些生产要求投入要素之间的比例性高一些，有些则要求低一些。,例如，工业生产的比例性要求资本一般高一点，农业生产的比例性要求资本低一点。,正是要素投入的比例性要求，形成一种要素的报酬递减现象。,17,实际的报酬递减定律,当其他的投入固定，而一种投入的数量由,0,逐步增加时，边际产量开始可能递增，但,迟早递减,。,O,Marginal product,Quantity of labor,18,说明,我们在计算一种要素的边际产品时，利用“,投入,N+1,单位要素时的最大产量与投入,N,单位要素时的最大产量之差,”来衡量。,对于劳动而言，较多的人数可以形成更好的分工模式，对于资本而言，较多的资本可以使用更有效的生产方法，因此，可能使边际产品存在递增阶段。,19,规模报酬问题,What would happen to wheat production if land, labor, water, and other inputs were increased by the same proportion (,比例,)? These questions refer to the,returns to scale,(,规模报酬,).,20,Firm,K,L,R,Q,规模报酬图示,aK,aL,aR,bQ,a 1,?,a b,a b,a = b,21,规模报酬的三种情形,There are three important cases of returns to scale:,Constant returns to scale,(,规模报酬不变,),Increasing returns to scale,(,规模报酬递增,),Decreasing returns to scale,(,规模报酬递减,).,22,规模报酬不变,Constant returns to,scale denote a case where a change in all inputs leads to a proportional (,成比例的,) change in output.,手工艺行业往往具有规模报酬不变性。,a = b,Firm,K,L,R,Q,aK,aL,aR,bQ,23,规模报酬递增,Increasing returns to scale,(also called,economies of scale,) arise when an increase in all inputs leads to a more-than-proportional increase in the level of output.,化工企业往往具有规模报酬递增性。,a b,Firm,K,L,R,Q,aK,aL,aR,bQ,26,导致规模报酬递减的原因,Causes of diseconomies (,不经济,) of scale:,plant may get too big for effective management;,workers may begin to feel alienated (,疏远的,) from their jobs.,管理活动自身一般随着规模增大而效率递减，当管理因素的份额较大时，将显现规模报酬递减性。,27,范围经济性,Economies of scope,occur when a number of different products can be produced more efficiently together than apart.,大炮,面包,产品转换曲线,生产大炮和面包的规模收益不变,28,范围经济性说明,大炮,面包,产品转换曲线,面包,数量,大炮,数量,保持面包数量不变，可以生产更多的大炮。,保持大炮数量不变，可以生产更多的面包。,29,短期和长期,We define the,short run,(,短期,) as a period in which firms can adjust production by changing variable factors (,可变要素,) such as materials and labor but cannot change fixed factors (,固定要素,) such as capital.,The,long run,(,长期,) is a period sufficiently long so that all factors including capital can be adjusted.,30,“短期和长期”的说明,经济学意义上的短期和长期不是以时间长短划分的。,当一个农户的土地面积给定时，他的经营就是短期的。如果他每半年就可以重新决定租用多少土地，那么半年以上的时间对他来说就是长期的。,对于一个汽车制造厂，如果在三年的时间里无法建设新的生产流水线，那么三年的时间对它来说就属于短期生产。,31,短期分析和长期分析,短期分析通常考虑某一种要素的数量变化对于产出的影响。例如，劳动的边际产量和平均产量等。,长期分析通常考虑所有要素的数量变化对于产出的影响。例如，规模报酬现象。,32,技术变革,Technological change,refers to in the processes for producing goods and services, changes in old products, or introduction of new products.,Process innovation,(,工艺创新,): new engineering knowledge improves production techniques for existing products.,Product innovation,(,产品创新,): new or improved products are introduced in the marketplace.,33,技术变革改变生产函数,1995 Technology,2005 Technology,Input,Total product,Technological change shifts production function upward.,34,35,背景知识,技术进步的机制：是计划经济还是市场经济具有优势？,在社会产品结构简单的历史条件下，计划经济具有一定的优势，但具有较大的政治风险。,在产品多样化而且更新更替速度加快的历史条件下，市场经济具有明显的优势。,36,总量生产函数,Q,is the total output;,K,is the capital;,L,is the labor.,The famous,Cobb-Douglas production,function,:,Q,= F(,K,L,),Y,=,AK,0.25,L,1-0.25,37,C-D,生产函数的规模收益,Y,=,AK,0.25,L,1-0.25,A,(,2,K,),0.25,(,2,L,),1-0.25,=,2,Y,A,(1.0,1,K,),0.25,L,1-0.25,1.0,025,Y,AK,0.25,(1.0,1,L,),1-0.25,1.0,075,Y,38,生产力的测定,We can use the aggregate production function to measure a countrys productivity and technological change.,In measuring productivity, we denote,labor productivity,as the amount of output per unit of labor;,capital productivity,as output per unit of capital; and,total factor productivity,(,全要素生产力,) as output per unit of total inputs of capital and labor.,39,美国的经验数据,Total factor productivity has been increasing throughout (,贯穿,) this century.,The capital stock (,资本存量,) has been growing faster than the number of work-hours.,Capitals rate of return has remained about the same.,In the last two decades, all measures of productivity have shown a marked growth slowdown (,减速,).,40,技术进步贡献的测定,从宏观的角度来说，可以认为生产具有规模报酬不变的特征。,假如一国生产可以用,Y,=,AK,0.25,L,0.75,描述，,如果劳动数量增长了,2%,，资本数量增长了,5%,，那么应该导致产量增长：,A,(1.05,K,),0.25,(1.02,L,),0.75,1.0274,AK,0.25,L,0.75,当经济实际增长,4%,时，若没有其他因素影响，那么技术进步的贡献为,4%,2.74%,1.26%,41,企业组织,6.2,企业的本质,Why does production generally take place in firms:,Production,is organized,in firms,because of economies of,specialization;,To raise resources for large-scale production;,To manage and,coordinate the production,process.,43,三种企业组织形式,The Individual Proprietorship (个人所有制),The partnership (合伙制),The Corporation (公司制),关于企业的见解,44,45,现代公司的核心特征,The ownership (所有权) of a corporation is determined by the ownership of the companys common stock (普通股票).,In principle, the shareholders (股东) control the companies they own.,The corporations managers and directors (董事) have the legal power to make decisions for the corporation.,46,公司制的利弊,The corporation may have perpetual (永久的) succession (连续性) or existence.,The corporations managers can make decisions quickly.,Corporate stockholders enjoy limited liability (有限责任).,Corporate income is doubly taxed (双重征税).,47,大公司的必要性,Efficient production often requires large-scale enterprises, which need billions of dollars of invested capital. Corporations, with limited liability and a convenient management structure, can attract large supplies of private capital, produce a variety of related products, and pool investor risks.,48,所有权与经营权分离,Because the stock of large companies is so widely dispersed,ownership is typically divorced from control,. Individual owners cannot easily affect the actions of large corporations.,49,大公司的所有权与经营权分离,1996年， AT&T（美国电话电报公司）有230多万股东。,由于大公司的股票过度分散化，由此导致所有权与经营权的分离。,所有权与经营权,50,51,对于经营者过高收入的批评,Critics answer that the most important reason for the trend is the divorce of ownership from control. This is the symptom (,症状,) of a malady (,弊端,) known as the,principal-agent problem,(,委托,-,代理问题,), wherein the incentives of the agents (the managers) are not appropriately aligned with the interests of the principal (the owners).,52,背景知识,公司组织要点,：,1.,所有权利用组织制度控制经营者；,2.,赋予权利必予以监督；,3.,将激励机制建立在经营者关心个人利益的基础上。,53,现代公司制度的制约机制,利用,组织机构,来保证股东的利益。,利用,股票奖惩,来激励经营者。,经理人市场,对于企业经营者的制约。,利用,资本市场,的兼并收购机制来制约经营者。,54,如何提高企业的生产效率,提高企业效率最重要的因素是，企业处于一个优胜劣汰的环境中。尤其是淘汰机制，迫使效率低的企业不断退出市场。,如同“物竞天择”的生物演化机制，“自由竞争，适者生存”是提高企业生产效率的不二法门。,你掌握了判别一种体制是否具有效率的标准吗？,55,政府所得,对于公司的所有者与经营者之争，政府作为渔翁所得有三：,公司如实缴税；,公司高效经营；,资源合理配置。,56,思考问题,你认为国有企业应该用什么样的理念来治理？,你认为多种经济共存的经济体制该如何治理？,你认为应该如何治理腐败？,57,小结,生产函数；,边际产量和平均产量；,规模报酬及其分类；,短期和长期的划分；,总量生产函数；,科学技术进步；,企业组织以及所有权与经营权分离。,58,回顾斯密的扣针厂,斯密说，,就是在一个小工厂里，雇佣十个工人，一人一天可制成,4800,枚针，而如果工人各自独立工作，一天连,20,枚针也做不出,。,从表面上看，斯密在比较分工与不分工的效率差异，其实，斯密是在比较工厂生产与个人生产的不同。,59,科斯的异议,科斯认为市场同样可以组织分工，即把不同分工环节的半成品分别交给不同的个人生产。,他专门指出，价格机制同企业一样也是一种协调分工的,“,一体化力量,”,，并认为，关于企业的理论,“,必须说明的是，为什么一种一体化力量（企业家）会替代另一种一体化力量（价格机制）。,”,60,科斯提出问题,科斯在企业的性质（1937）一文中说：在企业之外，价格变动决定生产；在企业之内，企业家指挥生产。,科斯提出的问题是，在市场经济中，为什么会同时存在这两种截然不同的生产组织方式。,61,科斯的见解,按照科斯的见解，是因为,利用市场价格机制有交易成本（费用）,，而利用企业组织生产可以节约交易成本。,科斯自己并没有给交易费用下定义。此后的学者大概是遵循科斯的传统，都不愿意给交易费用下一个明确的定义，即便是下了定义也难以在经济学家中取得一致的意见。,62,作业：P124 Q2、Q9,63,谢谢！,