语言学总复习54819课件

语言学复习1精选ppt1.Invitations to Linguistics1.What is language?2.What are the design features of language?3.What is arbitrariness?4.What is duality?5.What is creativity?6.What is displacement?2精选ppt7.The origin of language.8.What functions does language have?9.What is Linguistics?10.What are the main branches of linguistics?11.Important distinctions in Liguistics.1、Descriptive&Prescriptive（描描写写与与规定定）2、Synchronic L&Diachronic L(共共时L与与历时L)3、Langue&Parole（语言言与与言言语）4、Competence&Performance（语言能力与言能力与语言言应用）用）3精选pptLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic(内内在在的的)connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”Romeo and Julier4精选ppt“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.They are arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission.5精选ppt2.Speech Sounds1.What is phonetics?2.What are the three main branches of phonetics?3.Classification of English Consonants.4.Classification of Vowels.5.What is phonology?6.Whats the difference between phonetics and phonology?7.What is a phone?What is a phoneme?What is an allophone?6精选pptWhat is phonetics?The science studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech,and provides methods for their description,classification and transcription.7精选ppt 1Articulatory Phonetics 发音音语音学音学Phonetics 2Acoustic Phonetics 声学声学语音学音学 3Auditory Phonetics 听听觉语音学音学8精选ppt1.Articulatory Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds.9精选ppt2.Acoustic Phonetics：is the study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.10精选ppt3.Auditory Phonetics：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.11精选pptStop（Plosive）塞音（爆破音）塞音（爆破音）b p t d k gNasal 鼻音鼻音 m n Fricative 擦音擦音 f v s z Approximant 中通音中通音 j r wLateral 边通音通音 lTrill 颤音音 r Tap and Flap 触音触音 Affricate 塞擦音塞擦音 t d 12精选pptBilabial 双唇音双唇音 p b mLabiodental 唇唇齿音音 f vDental 齿音音 Alveolar 齿龈音音 t d n r s z lPostalveolar 后后齿龈音音 d tRetroflex 卷舌音卷舌音 rPalatal 腭音腭音 jVelar 软腭音腭音 k g Uvular 小舌音小舌音 rPharyngeal 咽音咽音Glottal 声声门音音13精选ppt14精选ppt“Phonology”is the study of sound systemsthe invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.音音位位学学研研究究的的是是一一种种语言言的的整整个个语音音系系统及及其其分分布布或或布布局局状状况况，包包括括某某一一特特定定语言言里里的的语音音或或音音位位分分布布和和结合的合的规则或或规律。律。15精选ppt1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made,transmitted and received.2.Phonology is the study of the sound systems of languages.16精选ppt1）Phone（音音素素）:a phonetic unit,the smallest part of phonetics.p t k heg.tip;pit;spit 语音属于言音属于言语2）Phoneme（音音位位）：phonological unit 是音位学是音位学单位，音位属于位，音位属于语言。言。/ph p=/3）Allophone（音音位位变体体）:The different phones representing a phoneme are allophones./pit/;/tip/;/spit/17精选ppt3.From Morpheme to Phrase1.What is morphology?2.What is a morpheme?What is an allomorph?3.What is a free morpheme?What is a bound morpheme?4.What is a root?What is a stem?What is an affix?5.What are open classes?What are closed classes?6.What is word?18精选ppt“Morphology”is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.“Morpheme”is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit which cannot be divided.An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs,which represent one morpheme.19精选pptFree Morphemes:independent of other plete meaning;used as free grammatical units in sentencesman,earth,wind,car,angerBound Morphemes:cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion20精选pptRoot（词根根）:is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Stem（词干干）:may consist of a single root morpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes.Affixes（词缀）:are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.21精选ppt Closed class words （封（封闭类词）Open-class words （开放（开放类词）1)Closed words:their membership is fixed or limited.E.g.pro.prep.conj.art.etc.2)Open-class words:whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.e.g.n.v.adj.adv.E.g.regarding/with regard to;throughout,in spite of22精选pptWord:is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning.23精选ppt4.From Word to Text1.What is syntax?2.What is category?What is syntactic category?3.What is IC analysis?4.What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?5.What is concord?24精选ppt1.What is Syntax?Syn:“together”Tax:“to arrange”Syntax:It studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.In short:It studies the formation of sentences.25精选ppt2.CategoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic category:能能在在句句子子中中起起相相同同作作用用的的词构构成成相相同同的的句句法法范范畴畴。句句法法范范畴畴不不同同于于词类，两两个个属属于于不不同同词类的的词可可能能属属于于同同一一句法范畴。句法范畴。26精选ppt3.What is Immediate Constituent(IC)Analysis?The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结 构构 体体）and its Constituents（成成 分分）.To analyze their relations is IC.To show how small constituents in sentences go together to form large constituents.27精选pptWith Bloomfields IC Analysis:The boy kicked the ball The boy kicked the ball28精选ppt S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicked the ballWith Chomskys Tree Diagram analysis 29精选ppt4.Endocentric and Exocentric constructions:向向心心结构和离心构和离心结构构 P78 Endocentric Construction:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents.A word or a group of words serves as a definable“center.”某一成分决定了整体短某一成分决定了整体短语的性的性质two pretty girls30精选pptExocentric Construction:opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole;there is no definable centre or head inside the group.整体短整体短语中的成分无法决定整体短中的成分无法决定整体短语的性的性质。It includes basic sentence,PP,(V+O)construction,and connective construction(be+complement).31精选pptConcord:also known as Agreement,the form of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.There is a book on the shelf.There are some books on the shelf.We are studying English.He studies English.32精选ppt5.Meaning1.What is semantics?2.What is referential theory?3.What is ideational theory?4.What is the Semantic Triangle?5.How many kinds of meaning did Leech find and study?6.What is sense relation?7.What is entailment?What is presupposition？8.What is componential analysis?33精选pptSemantics:is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is known as the referential theory.34精选pptFrege 为弥弥补指称指称论之不足，提出了之不足，提出了观念念论，认为语言符号和符号所指言符号和符号所指对象象之之间不存在直接的指称关系，它是不存在直接的指称关系，它是经过涵涵义（Sense）这一一过渡渡层面使得面使得语言与所指言与所指对象象发生生联系的，意系的，意义不不仅仅在于与所指在于与所指对象之象之间的关系，也包的关系，也包括括词语本身的涵本身的涵义。IdeationalTheoryIdeationalTheory观念念论35精选pptOgden&Richards(1923):Semantic Triangle(Triangle of Significance)P36 Concept(Sense)概念（涵概念（涵义）-word(symbol)thing(referent)符号形式符号形式 指称指称对象象36精选pptG.Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics.1.Conceptual meaning 概念意概念意义2.Connotative meaning 内涵意内涵意义3.Social meaning 社会意社会意义4.Affective meaning 感情意感情意义5.Reflected meaning 反射意反射意义6.Collocative meaning 搭配意搭配意义7.Thematic meaning 主主题意意义37精选pptSense relation:A word which is related to other words in sense within a language system itself.词与与词之之间不同的涵不同的涵义关系关系38精选ppt Polysemy Homonymy Sense Relation Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy39精选ppt1.Polysemy(一一词多多义)：is the common feature peculiar to all natural languages.40精选ppt2.Homonymy:The words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.41精选ppt Perfect homonym Homonymy Homographs Homophones 42精选ppt3.Synonymy（同同 义 关关 系系）:words different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.43精选ppt4.Antonymy（反（反义关系）关系）:as words which are opposite in meaning.Complementaries Types of antonyms Contraries Converses44精选pptV.Hyponymy （上上下下义关关系系）:deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.45精选pptEntailment 蕴涵关系涵关系：Entailment is an important sense relation or logical relation between sentences.a.John killed Bill.b.Bill died.a.I saw a boy.b.I saw a child.(3)a.John is a bachelor.b.John is an unmarried.46精选pptPresupposition 预设下句下句为上句的上句的预设。甲：当今法国国王是个甲：当今法国国王是个秃子。子。乙：当今法国有位国王。乙：当今法国有位国王。47精选pptComponential Analysis(语义成成分分分分析析)：by breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components,digging them out and classifying them,and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis.48精选pptfather，mother，son，daughter包包含了一种两含了一种两实体体间关系的关系的词 HUMAN MALE ADULTMan +Woman +Boy +Girl +49精选ppt6.Language and Cognition1.What is Cognition?2.What are the main basic elements of cognition?3.What is the core principle of Cognitive Linguistics?4.What is iconicity?5.What is prototype theory?6.What is image schema?7.What is metaphor?What is metonymy?8.What is salience?50精选pptWhat is Cognition？Cognition：“认识”和和“认知知”英英汉词典典“认识”指指客客观事事体体及及其其规律律在在人人脑中中的的反反映映。感感+理理辞辞海海（1989,1999）：认知知就就是是认识，指指人人类认识客客观事事物物、获得得知知识的的活活动，包包括括知知觉、记忆、学、学习、言、言语、思、思维和和问题解决等解决等过程。程。现代代汉语词典典（第第5版版）：通通过思思维活活动认识、了解。、了解。51精选ppt认知最基本的两个要素：动觉图式和基本范畴：通式和基本范畴：通过人的身体与客人的身体与客观外界互外界互动而而产生的，可被直接理解，其生的，可被直接理解，其他概念和范畴他概念和范畴则主要是通主要是通过隐喻认知机制而被知机制而被简洁认知知的。的。52精选ppt认知语言学的核心原则语言也是一种言也是一种认知活知活动，是，是对客客观世世界界进行互行互动体体验和和认知加工的知加工的结果。果。现实 认知知 语言言53精选ppt象似性语言符号象似于人们的认知方式，且在其作用下一定程度地象似于现实世界，语符形式在音、形或结构上与其所表达的意义之间存在映照相似的现象。该描写不仅反映了象似性具有普遍性，存在于语言的不同层面，而且还为象似性理论提供了一条可应用的系统研究线索。音音义象似象似 形形义象似象似 距离象似性距离象似性 数量象似性数量象似性 顺序象似性序象似性54精选ppt句法象似性句法象似性距离象似性距离象似性John Haiman（1983）象象似似动因因与与经济动因因一一文文中中对距距离离相相似似性性（the iconicity of distance）描述）描述为：The linguistic between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between them.（词句句中中语符符之之间的的距距离离象象似于它似于它们所表示的概念距离。）所表示的概念距离。）55精选pptgive sb.sth.与与 give sth.to sb.的距离象的距离象似性似性give you a book give a book to youhelp sb.(to)do 结构与距离象似性构与距离象似性He helped me finish the meal.He helped me to finish the meal.This medicine will help you to sleep.56精选pptapple，treeapple treeapple trees语，文，文语文文语和文和文57精选ppt顺序象似性序象似性语言言单位排列位排列顺序象似于序象似于时间顺序和序和文化文化观念念Jacobson(1965)：The order of clauses corresponds in general to the order of events,as in“I came,I saw,I conquered.”(一般来一般来说，分句的，分句的顺序象似于事件的序象似于事件的顺序，序，例如：例如：“我来，我看，我征服我来，我看，我征服”。)58精选ppt英英语的的语序与序与汉语的的语序序常常是不常常是不对应的，的，这是由是由于英于英语的的语序与序与实际生活中的生活中的时间顺序常是不序常是不对应的。例：的。例：他他 从从 成都成都 坐坐 火火 车 经 遂宁遂宁 到到 重重庆。He came to Chongqing from Chengdu through Suining by train.59精选ppt 原型范畴原型范畴（范畴，即划分（范畴，即划分类别。男人。男人/女人女人,好好/一般一般/差）差）60精选ppt 意象意象图式式 认知知语言学的核心原言学的核心原则为“现实 认知知语言言”，这是一个是一个十分十分笼统的概括，其中的的概括，其中的“认知知”包括很多包括很多细微微过程，我程，我们可将可将其其详述述为：现 实 互互动体体验 意象意象图式式 范畴范畴 概念概念 意意义 语 言言 从上从上图可可见，意象，意象图式是在互式是在互动体体验的基的基础上形成的，它又是上形成的，它又是形成范畴、概念和意形成范畴、概念和意义的基的基础。因此意象。因此意象图式在式在认知知语言学中言学中具有具有举足足轻重的地位。重的地位。61精选ppt 语言的突言的突显观62精选ppt 语言言的的突突显观认为，语言言结构构中中信信息息的的选择与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。如：如：The car crashed into the tree.The tree was hit by the car.63精选ppt 台上坐着主席台上坐着主席团。主席主席团坐在台上。坐在台上。笑声充笑声充满晚会。晚会。晚会充晚会充满笑声。笑声。The picture is above the blackboard.The picture is above the blackboard.The blackboard is below the picture.The blackboard is below the picture.64精选ppt7.Language in Use1.What is pragmatics?2.What is the relation between pragmatics and semantics?3.What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?4.What is the speech act theory?5.What is performative and constative?6.What is a locution,an illocution and a perlocution?7.What is the cooperative principle?65精选ppt什么是语用学语用学，即研究用学，即研究语言使用的学科。言使用的学科。语用用学学，研研究究在在不不同同语境境中中话语意意义的的恰恰当当地地表表达达和和准准确确地地理理解解，寻找找并并确确立立使使话语意意义得得以以恰恰当当地地表表达达和和准准确确地地理理解解的的基基本本原原则和准和准则。语用用学学，研研究究话语在在使使用用中中的的语境境意意义，或或话语在在特特定定语境境条条件件下下的的交交际意意义，特特别研研究究在在不不同同的的语言言交交际环境境下下如如何何准准确确地地理理解解语言和恰当地运用言和恰当地运用语言。言。66精选ppt语义学与学与语用学的用学的联系和区系和区别：二二者者都都是是对意意义的的研研究究，但但它它们是是在在两两个个不不同同的的层面面上上对意意义进行行的的研研究究：语义学学是是对抽抽象象语言言能能力力的的研研究究，语用用学学是是对言言语行行为（即即通通过言言语实施施的的行行为，是是说话人人跟跟听听话人人对抽抽象象的的语言言能能力力的的运运用用）的的研研究究。二二者者之之间的的差差别大大体体上上就就是是意意义和和用用法法之之间的的差差别。然然而而不不应该忘忘记言言语行行为是是语言言能能力力的的具具体体体体现。因因此此我我们赞成成利利奇奇采采用用的的观点点：“语义学学和和语用用学学是是互互不不相相同同但但又又互互相相补充的研究充的研究领域。域。”67精选ppt句子与句子与话语 句句子子：是是一一个个句句法法学学、语义学学的的概概念念，是是脱脱离离语境境条条件件的的抽抽象象的的单位位，多多用用于于指指抽抽象象的的语法法结构构或或脱脱离离语境境条条件件的的结构构组合合，也也就就是是说,它它是是按按照照一一定定的的语法法规则组合合起起来来的的、具具有有意意义的的语言言单位位，其其意意义就就是是词汇意意义和和语法法意意义的的组合合，在在任任何何条条件件下下它它的的意意义都是恒定的。都是恒定的。话语：是是一一个个语用用学学概概念念，话语就就是是特特定定语境境条条件件中中所所使使用用的的句句子子、词或或词语，体体现的是特定的的是特定的语境意境意义。68精选ppt 言言语行行为理理论 是是英英国国约翰翰兰素素奥奥斯斯汀汀19551955年年提提出出的的。他他认为：为了了传递信信息息，人人们需需要要使使用用话语，但但话语并并非非都都是是为了了传递字字面面意意义或或表表达达话语本本身身的的语义信信息息，在在很很多多时候候说话人人都都是是在在“通通过言言辞辞行行事事”（doing doing things things with with wordswords）。比比如如，实施施许诺、发出出警警告告或或威威胁、表表示示请求求、表表达达命命令令、进行行批批评等。等。在在一一定定的的语境境条条件件下下通通过话语实施施的的行行为，被被称称为“言言语行行为”（speech speech actsacts），是是说话人人跟跟听听话人人对抽象的抽象的语言能力的运用。言能力的运用。69精选pptI name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.I bequeath my match to my brother.I bet you six pences it will rain tomorrow.I promise to finish it in time.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I warn you that the bull will charge.70精选pptLocutionary act（发话行为）普通意普通意义我我们说话的的时候，要移候，要移动发音器官，音器官，发出出按照一定方式按照一定方式组织起来，并被起来，并被赋予了一定予了一定意意义的声音。在的声音。在这个意个意义上，当有人上，当有人说“Morning！”时，我，我们可以可以问：“他做了他做了什么？什么？”，而不，而不问“他他说了什么？了什么？”。答。答案可以是他案可以是他发出了一个声音，出了一个声音，单词或者句或者句子子“Morning”。71精选pptIllocutionary act（行事行为）我我们说话时，不不只只是是说出出一一些些具具有有一一定定意意义的的语言言单位位，而而且且说明明我我们的的说话目目的的，我我们希希望望怎怎样被被理理解解，也也就就是是Austin说的的具具有有一一 定定 的的 语 力力（force）。我我 们 可可 以以 说“Morning！”有有问候候的的语力力，或或者者说，它它应该被被理理解解成成问候候。语力力，或或者者叫叫行行事事语力力（illocutionary force），像像但但与与说话者者意意义、语境境意意义或或附附加加意意义，可可以以译成成汉语的的“言言外之意外之意”。72精选pptPerlocutionary act（取效行为）说话可可以以看看成成做做事事的的第第三三种种意意义，涉涉及及话语对听听话人人产生生的的效效果果。通通过告告诉听听话人人某某事事，说话人人可可以以改改变听听话人人对某某件件事事的的观点点，或或者者误导他他，让他他惊惊奇奇，诱导他他做做某某事事，等等等等。不不管管这些些效效果果是是否否符符合合说话人人的的本本意意，它它们都都可可以以看看作作说话人人行行为的一部分。的一部分。73精选ppt 会会话含含义理理论是是美美国国哲哲学学家家格格赖斯斯19671967年年在在哈哈佛佛大大学学的威廉的威廉詹姆斯詹姆斯讲座上提出来的。座上提出来的。格格赖斯斯在在讲座座中中区区分分了了话语的的自自然然意意义和和非非自自然然意意义。自自然然意意义指指话语本本身身表表达达的的客客观事事实，而而非非自自然然意意义指指说话人人要要表表达达的的意意图，即即主主观的的非非实际的的信信息息。指指出出说话人人在在说一一句句话的的同同时还流流露露出出的的别的的隐含含意意思思。也也就就是是说在在言言语交交流流中中说出出X X，命，命题意意义为P P，然而却，然而却隐含含Q Q。74精选ppt 会会话含含义，就就是是话语在在会会话中中产生的生的隐含意含意义。会会话含含义理理论，是是力力图解解释人人们如如何何获得得言言外外之之意意，也也就就是是如如何何收收获一一句句话的的隐含意含意义的一种理的一种理论。75精选ppt 例如：例如：丈丈夫夫对妻妻子子说：“到到做做饭的的时间了。了。”妻子回答妻子回答“我很累。我很累。”丈丈夫夫的的言言外外之之意意，可可能能是是我我饿了了，或或者者是是提提醒醒妻妻子子应该去去做做饭；妻妻子子的的言言外外之之意意可可能能是是出出门到到外外面面去吃，或者是去吃，或者是饭得由你来做。得由你来做。76精选ppt男男孩孩对女女孩孩说：“你你不不带眼眼镜的的时候很漂亮。候很漂亮。”女女孩孩：“我我戴戴眼眼镜的的时候候一一定定很很丑丑了。了。”男男孩孩有有理理由由否否认他他这样说了了，但但是是他不能否他不能否认自己多少暗示了自己多少暗示了这一点。一点。Grice试图弄弄明明白白，人人们是是怎怎样传达没有明确达没有明确说出来的涵出来的涵义的。的。77精选ppt 格格赖斯斯的的合合作作原原则是是会会话含含义理理论的基的基础。“合合作作原原则”的的内内容容是是：说人人们在在会会话过程程中中头脑里里会会尽尽量量保保持持某某些些标准准，从从而而在在遵遵循循这些些标准准的的基基础上使交流上使交流顺利利进行。行。78精选ppt “合合作作”的的概概念念是是：会会话参参与与者者尽尽管管是是分分别提提供供自自己己的的话语，但但总是是在在一一定定程程度度上上意意识到到其其中中的的某某一一些些目目的的，至至少少是是一一个个互互相相都都能能接接受受的的话语发展展方方向向；这一一些些目目的的或或方方向向的的达达成成可可以以说是是在在会会话过程程中中共共同同维护和和坚持持当当前前的的目目的的和和方方向向形形成成的的默默契契，也也可可以以说是是是是会会话参参与与者者在在交交流流过程程中中共共同同合作努力地合作努力地结果。果。79精选ppt格格赖斯斯把把合合作作原原则具具体体分分析析成成数数量量、质量、关系、方式四条准量、关系、方式四条准则：数数量量准准则，指指的的是是信信息息量量要要恰恰如如其其分分，不多不少。不多不少。质量量准准则，指指的的是是说话要要真真实，要要有有根根据。据。关系准关系准则，指的是，指的是话语之之间要有关要有关联。方方式式准准则，指指的的是是说话要要清清楚楚，有有条条理理，不要有歧不要有歧义，不要，不要罗嗦。80精选ppt