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Tort Law1GeneralTortlacivilwrongwhichunfairlycausessomeoneelsetosufferlossorharmItdoesnotincludebreachofcontractortrust.(Acivilwrongcanbeatort,breachofcontractorbreachoftrust.)Purposeoftortlawltoproviderelieftotheinjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousact2GeneralltodeterothersfromcommittingthesameactUStortlawlTortlawintheU.S.islargelycommonlaw.Courtshavethepowertoshapeandchangetheelementsofclaimsanddefensesofexistingtortsandthepowertocreatenewtorts.lStatuteshavebeenpassedinattemptstoreformthetortsystem.3GeneralMostofthemhaverelatedtoproceduralmattersandamountsandcategoriesofdamages.lManyjudgesutilizetheRestatement of Torts(2nd)asaninfluentialguide.TheRestatementisaninfluentialtreatiseissuedbytheAmericanLawInstitute,whichsummarizesthegeneralprinciplesofcommonlawUnitedStatestortlaw.Categoriesoftortslintentionaltorts4Generallnegligencelstrictliabilitytorts5Intentional Torts6GeneralDefinitionlAnintentionaltortisatortresultingfromanintentionalactonthepartofthetortfeasor.Subcategoriesltortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress7Generallpropertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversionldignitarytortsdefamationinvasionofprivacy 8大家有疑问的，可以询问和交流大家有疑问的，可以询问和交流可以互相讨论下，但要小声点可以互相讨论下，但要小声点可以互相讨论下，但要小声点可以互相讨论下，但要小声点9TortsAgainstthePerson10AssaultDefinitionlanintentionalactthatcausesanapprehensionofimmediateharmfuloroffensivecontactApprehensionisnotthesameasfearhereitmeansawarenessthataninjuryoroffensivecontactisimminent.RequirementslTheactmustbeovert.Merewordsdonotconstituteanassault.11AssaultTheremustbeanaccompanyingact.lThedefendantmusthavetheapparentabilitytocarryoutthecontact.Actualabilitytocarryoutthecontactisnotnecessary.lTheplaintiffmusthaveareasonableapprehensionofsuchcontact.Actualfearontheplaintiffspartisnotrequired.Examples12AssaultlswingingabaseballbatatsomeonelholdingarockandthreateningtothrowitatsomeonelpointingagunatsomeonelpointingarealistictoygunatsomeoneCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultlCriminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.lWiththetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.13AssaultAdefendantwhothrowsarockatasleepingvictimandmissescanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.14BatteryDefinitionlanintentionalactthatcausesaharmfuloroffensivecontactHarmfulcontactlcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepainOffensivecontactlcontactthatwouldoffendapersonssenseofpersonaldignity15BatteryExampleslbeatingsomeonewithatireironlspittinginsomeonesfacelknockingahatoffsomeonesheadlwhippingahorseonwhichsomeonewasriding,causinghimtofallandbeinjuredlmixingsomethingoffensiveinfoodthatheknowsanotherwilleattheotherdoesinfacteattheoffensivematter16BatteryldiggingapitwiththeintentthatanotherwillfallintoitlatertheotherdoesinfactfallintoitCriminalandtortiousbatterylUsuallybatteryisprosecutedasacrimeonlyincasesinvolvingseriousharmtothevictim.Criminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.17False ImprisonmentDefinitionlthedetentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsentTheessenceofthetortisthenaturalmentalharmthatresultswhenonesfreedomisrestrictedwithoutjustification.Elementslintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainarea18False ImprisonmentlactualconfinementlawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfinedlnoreasonablemeansofescapeFalsearrestlFalsearrestoccurswhensomeonearrestsanotherindividualwithoutthelegalauthoritytodoso,whichbecomesfalseimprisonmentthemomentheorsheistakenintocustody.19IIEDDefinitionshortforintentional infliction of emotional distressreferredtoasthe tort of outrageinsomejurisdictionslintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementslThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly.20IIEDlThedefendantsconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous.lTheconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.SevereemotionaldistresslThistortinvolvesmorethanhurtfeelings,disappointment,orworry.lTheremustbeseverementalsuffering,i.e.suchthatnoreasonablepersonshouldbeexpectedtoendureit.21IIEDThisstandardisquantifiedbytheintensity,duration,andanyphysicalmanifestations(ulcersorheadaches,forexample)ofthedistress.ExampleslApersonrefusedtoinformanotherofthewhereaboutsofthatotherschildforseveralyears,thoughthepersonknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.22IIEDlApersonsentalettertoanotherfalselyinforminghimthataclosefamilymemberofhishadbeenkilledinanaccident.23Statute of LimitationsDefinitionlanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectiveltopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnesses24Statute of LimitationsFunctionlThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationlThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiffscomplaint.25Statute of LimitationslIfnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatutelWhenthestatuteistolled,therunningoflimitationsissuspendeduntilsomeeventspecifiedbylawtakesplace.Mostjurisdictionsprovidethatthestatuteoflimitationsistolledundercertaincircumstances:26Statute of LimitationsTheplaintiffisaminor.Theplaintiffhasbeendeemedinsane.Theplaintiffhasbeenconvictedofafelonyandisimprisoned.Thedefendantisinbankruptcy.27Shopkeepers PrivilegeGenerallInsomejurisdictionsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeepersprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhasprobablecausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.28Shopkeepers PrivilegeThisprivilegedoesnotincludethepowerofsearch.RequisiteconditionslInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.lReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.29Shopkeepers PrivilegelReasonableforceonlyOnlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.lReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.30PropertyTorts31Trespass to LandGenerallTrespasstolandoccurswhenapersondirectlyentersuponanotherslandwithoutpermission,orremainsupontheland,orplacesorprojectsanyobjectupontheland.lThebasisforthistortistherighttoexclusivepossessionoftheland.NaturelThistortisactionable per se.32Trespass to LandDamagesarenotrequiredtobeprovenforintentionaltrespass.Onlywhentheentryisnegligentisthereanyneedtoprovedamages.IntentlTheintentrequirementoftrespassisonlythatthepersonintendedtoentertheproperty.Itisirrelevantwhetherornottheentryisamistake,causedbyignoranceoftheownershiportheboundaries.33Trespass to LandNotelTherightsinherentinthepossessionoflandextendaboveandbelowthesurface.34Trespass to ChattelsDefinitionltheintentionalinterferencewithanotherpersonslawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferencelanyphysicalcontact(intermeddling)withthechattelinaquantifiablewaylanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheownersaccesstoit)35Trespass to ChattelsNotelIncasesofintermeddling,thereneedstobeactualharmsustainedbytheplaintiffinorderforhimtosue.Damagesarelimitedtotheactualharm(whichcanincludeeconomiclossasaresultofthetrespasse.g.lossofprofitonadamagedchattel).lIncasesofdispossession,theplaintiffisalwaysentitledtodamagesevenifnoquantifiableharmcanbeproven.36Trespass to ChattelsExamplelHermanseeshisWar and Peacesittingonatable.Hepicksupthebook,putsitinhisbagandgoeshome.Infact,thebookbelongstoLeonandHermanhasmistakenitforhisowncopy.lInthiscase,HermanisliableforatrespasstochattelsbecauseheintendedtotakeLeonsbook,eventhoughhisactionwasbasedonareasonablemistake.37ConversionGenerallConversionoccurswhensomeonewrongfullytakesorusespropertyofanotherfortheirownpurposesordestroysitoraltersitsnature.ConversionandtheftlTheftwillalsobeconversion.lButnotallconversionsaretheftsbecauseconversionrequiresnoelementofdishonesty.38ConversionPropertysubjecttoconversionlItmustbepersonalproperty.Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.lItmustbetangible.money,ananimal,furniture,ortoolscropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)rightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynote39ConversionExampleslApersonhasanotherscartowedawayinordertotaketheparkingplace.lAdrycleanermistakenlydeliversasuittothewrongcustomer.lAmechanicborrowsasportscarheissupposedtorepairwithoutpermission.lAneighborlendsherhedgetrimmertoafriend,butthefriendusesittocutdownatree.40Trespass to Chattels and ConversionGenerallThetwoconceptsarecloselyrelated.SimilaritylBothincludethewrongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferencelTheyaredifferentindegreethedamagedonetotheplaintiffspossessioninaconversioncaseismoreseverethaninatrespasscase.41Trespass to Chattels and ConversionApplicationlIngeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropriatetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.lWhentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthelostuseoftheitemandrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,instead,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.42Trespass to Chattels and ConversionExamplelDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogsuffersabrokenleg.ThiswouldbeanactionabletrespasstochattelsandMartywouldbeawardeddamagescommensuratewiththeharmdonebyDaphne.lDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogdies.Thiswouldbeanactionableconversion.Martywouldbeawardedthedogsfullvalue.43DignitaryTorts44DefamationDefinitionlthecommunicationofafalsestatementthatharmsapersonsreputationDefamatoryinformationmustbecommunicatedtoathirdperson.Typeslslanderoraldefamation(spokenstatements)llibelwrittendefamation(written,printedorbroadcastwords)45DefamationPublicfigurelawofdefamationlApublicfigurealleginglibelmustproveactualmalice.Publicfiguresvoluntarilyplacethemselvesinapositionthatinvitesclosescrutiny.Defamationper selSomecategoriesofstatementsareconsidereddefamatoryper seinjuryispresumedandneedntbeproven.46Defamationastatementthatnegativelyaffectsapersonsreputationrelatingtohisbusinessorprofessionallegationsthatapersonisunchasteallegationsthatapersonisinfectedwithasexuallytransmitteddiseaseallegationsthatapersonhascommittedacrimeofmoralturpitude(suchasrapeorincest)Defensestoclaimsofdefamationltruth47Defamationlopinionlprivilegeevidencegivenincourtstatementsmadeinasessionofthelegislature48Invasion of PrivacyDefinitionltheintrusionintothepersonallifeofanother,withoutjustcauseCategorieslintrusionofsolitudeactualphysicalorelectronicintrusionintoapersonsprivatequartersApersonwasundressingathome,andsomeonefilmedthiswithouttellingtheperson.49Invasion of PrivacylpublicdisclosureofprivatefactsthedisseminationoftruthfulprivateinformationwhichareasonablepersonwouldfindobjectionableAnunscrupulousreporterrummagedthroughapublicfiguresgarbagetofindevidenceofprescriptiondruguseorotherhighlypersonalmatters.lfalselightthepublicationoffactswhichplaceapersoninafalselight,eventhoughthefactsthemselvesmaynotbedefamatory50Invasion of PrivacyFalselightcasesareaboutdamagetoapersonspersonalfeelingsordignity,whereasdefamationisaboutdamagetoapersonsreputation.Areporterreturnedtothesceneofamassivebridgecollapseseveralyearsafterthetragedy.Thereporterattemptedtointerviewthewidowofamanwhodiedinthecrash.Thewidowandherchildrenwerenotathomesothereporterfabricatedastoryaboutthemwhichplacedtheminafalselightinthepubliceye.51Invasion of PrivacylappropriationtheunauthorizeduseofapersonsnameorlikenesstoobtainsomebenefitsAlocalrestaurantusedacelebritysnameorimageinacommercialandimpliedanofficialendorsement.52Negligence53GeneralDefinitionlconductthatbreachesastandardofcaredeemedbythelawasnecessarytoprotectothersfromunreasonablerisksofharmgenerallyexpressedasabreachofadutyElementslThedefendantowedadutyofcaretotheplaintiff;54Generallthedefendantbreachedthatduty;andlasaresultofthedefendantsbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury.55Standard of CareGenerallAllpeopleareunderadutytoconductthemselvesinsuchamannerasnottocreateunreasonablerisksofphysicalharmtoothers.lDuringatrial,theconductofthedefendantisreviewedtodetermineifheorshehasmetthereasonablepersonstandard.Wouldareasonablepersonhaveactedsimilarlyundersimilarcircumstances?56Standard of CareReasonablepersonlahypotheticalpersoninsocietywhoshowsaveragecare,skillorjudgmentinconductItisnotanaverageortypicalperson.Itisacompositeofacommunitysjudgmentastohowatypicalmemberofthatcommunityshouldbehaveinsituationsthatmightposeathreatofharmtothepublic.57Standard of CareEventhoughthemajorityofpeopleinthecommunitymaybehaveinacertainway,thatdoesnotestablishthestandardofconductofthereasonableperson.ReasonablepersonstandardlApersonhasactednegligentlyifshehasdepartedfromconductexpectedofareasonablyprudentpersonactingundersimilarcircumstances.58Standard of CareItisacompletelyobjectivetestunderwhichsubjectiveelementsarenormallynottakenintoaccount.Subjectivetraitsofthetortfeasormaybeconsidered,buttheyareconsideredaccordingtoanobjectivestandard.59CausationGenerallToestablishcausationinnegligencecasestheplaintiffmustprovethatthedefendantsactwasboththecause-in-factandtheproximatecauseofhisinjuries.Cause-in-factlThebut-fortestWouldtheplaintiffhavebeeninjuredbutfortheactofthedefendant?60CausationlThesubstantialfactortestWasthedefendantsactionasubstantialfactorincausingtheplaintiffsinjury?ProximatecauselThedirectnesstestThedefendantsactistheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjuryifthereisanunbrokensequenceofeventsbetweentheactandtheharm.lTheforeseeabilitytest61CausationItissufficientifareasonablepersonwouldhaveforeseentheharmfulresults.InterveningcauselaneventwhichoccursafterthedefendantsnegligentacthasoccurredandwhichcontributestotheinjuryIftheinterveningcausewastheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjury,thedefendantsactwillnotbeconsideredtheproximatecause.62CausationIftheinterveningcausewasforeseeable,thedefendantwilloftenbeheldliableforthisadditionalharm.63NIEDGenerallshortfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistresslacontroversialcauseofactionlavailableinnearlyallUSstatesbutseverelyconstrainedandlimitedinthemajorityofthemNIEDandIIEDlInanactionforNIEDthereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.64NIEDlAnaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.UnderlyingconceptlOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingmentaldistresstoanotherindividual.lIfonebreachesthisdutyandunreasonablycausesmentaldistresstoanotherindividual,hewillbeliablefordamagestotheinjuredindividual.65Contributory NegligenceDefinitionladefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofprooflInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceoftheplaintifforclaimant.lInothers,theburdenisontheplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.66Contributory NegligenceDisadvantagelItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.ResultlIthasbeendeletedasadefensefromthevastmajorityofstatutesandreplacedwithcomparativenegligence.67Comparative NegligenceDefinitionladefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiffsownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypeslPurecomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.68Comparative NegligencelPartialcomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.69Assumption of RiskDefinitionladefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryagainstanegligenttortfeasoriftheplaintiffvoluntarilyandknowinglyassumedtherisksinherenttotheactivityinwhichheparticipatedRationalelUponassumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.70Assumption of RisklWithoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ClassificationslExpressassumptionofriskoccurswhenaplaintiffexplicitlyagreestotakeonarisk.Thisisoftendonethroughacontract.lImpliedassumptionofriskoccurswhentheplaintiffsactionsimplythathehasconsentedtoassumetherisk.71Assumption of RiskExamplelJoebrokehisarmwhenhefellintoamanholewhilewalkingdownthestreetinatown.Theareawherethemanholewashadbeenropedoffandlargesignspostedwarningpedestrianstoavoidit.lInitsdefense,thetownmayraisethedoctrineofassumptionofrisk.72StrictLiabilityTorts73GeneralStrictliabilitylStrictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).Undercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryevenifthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.ApplicationlStrictliabilityisoftenimposedonthoseengagedinabnormallydangerousactivities.74GenerallStrictliabilityisalsoimposedonsellersandmanufacturersofproducts.75Abnormally Dangerous ActivityDefinitionlanactivitythatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinitcanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifhehastakeneveryreasonableprecautiontopreventothersfrombeinginjuredalsotermedinherentlydangerousactivityorultrahazardousactivityCategories76Abnormally Dangerous ActivitylTransportation,storage,anduseofultrahazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalslKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsthatarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknown propensityfordangerousbehavior(e.g.,adogthathasattackedpeoplebefore)77Abnormally Dangerous ActivityTheseactivitiesareallowableaslongasnoharmoccurs.ExceptionlApersonwhoisinjuredbyoneoftheseactivitieswhiletrespassingonthepropertyofthepersonengagedintheactivityisbarredfromsuingunderastrictliabilitytheory.lInstead,heorshemustprovethatthepropertyownerwasnegligent.78Product LiabilityDefinitionltheresponsibilityofamanufacturerorvendorofgoodstocompensateforinjurycausedbydefectivemerchandisethatithasprovidedforsaleProductliabilityclaimsintheUSlnegligenceclaimslstrictliabilityclaimslbreachofwarrantyclaimslvariousconsumerprotectionclaims79Product LiabilityStrictliabilityclaimslGeneralStrictliabilityisappliedcommonlytodangerouslydefectiveproducts.Themanufacturerandanysellerofaproductcanbeheldliableeveniftheyhaveexercisedallreasonablecareinproductionandsaleoftheproduct.lLimitationsItappliesonlytomerchantsellerssellerswhoregularlydealintheproduct.80Product LiabilityTheproductmustnothavebeenalteredafteritleftthesellerscontrolandmustbeusedinanormalandpropermanner.lDefenseThedefenseusuallyraisedinstrictliabilityproductscasesismisuseoftheproduct.lTheplaintiffinjuredhimselfbyusinganelectrichedgetrimmertocuthishair.Iftheparticularmisusewasaforeseeableone,thedefendantwillusuallybeliable.lstandingonachair81Nuisance82GeneralDefinitionlsomethingthatcausesoffence,damage,annoyance,orinconvenienceThelawofnuisancelThelawofnuisancewascreatedtostopsuchbothersomeactivitiesorconductwhentheyunreasonablyinterferedeitherwiththerightsofotherprivatelandownersorwiththerightsofthegeneralpublic.83GeneralUnderthecommonlaw,personsinpossessionofrealpropertyareentitledtothequietenjoymentoftheirlands.Ifaneighborinterfereswiththatquietenjoyment,theaffectedpartymaymakeaclaiminnuisance.TypeslPrivatenuisanceacivilwronglPublicnuisanceacriminalwrong84Private NuisanceDefinitionlconductthatinterfereswithapersonsuseorquietenjoymentofhislandCategorieslinterferencewiththephysicalconditionofthelanditselfvibrationorblastingthatdamagesahousethepollutionofsoil,astream,oranundergroundwatersupply85Private Nuisancelinterferencewiththehealth,comfort,orconvenienceofanoccupantfoulodorsnoxiousgasessmokedustloudnoisesexcessivelighthightemperaturesrepeatedtelephonecalls86Private NuisanceldisturbanceofanoccupantsmentaltranquilityacontagiousdiseasehospitalstoredexplosivesaviciousdogTrespassandnuisancelAtrespassinterfereswiththerighttoexclusivepossessionofland.lAnuisanceinterfereswiththeuseandenjoymentoftheland.87Private NuisanceIfalandownerdropsatreeacrossherneighborsboundarylineshehascommittedatrespass.Ifherdogbarksallnightkee
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