欧洲文化入门课件(同名1225)

欧洲文化入门vThe period between approximately 1600 and 1800 was an age of contradictions.In Western Europe,deeply felt,even mystical religious sentiment vied争夺 with the rise of science and rational methods of scientific investigation.Newly developed theories of constitutional government 立宪政体contended with firmly entrenched 确立的claims to divine right among“absolute”rulersmonarchs who recognized no legal limitations to their authority.vIn 1648,by the terms of the Treaty of Westphalia,which ended the Thirty Years War,the principle of national sovereignty was firmly established in the West:By that principle,each European state would exercise independent and supreme authority over its own territories and inhabitants.vIn the economic arena,the prosperity of the sixteenth century was followed by marked decline in the seventeenth.Nevertheless,after 1660,commercial capitalism and the production of manufactured goods flourished in the West,where economic growth was tied to a pattern of global commerce.vIn the West,the years between 1600 and 1750 were closely associated with a style known as“the baroque”characterized by dramatic expression,theatrical spectacle,and spatial grandeur,the baroque became the hallmark of an age of exuberant活跃的 expansion.The style also reflected the new,dynamic view of the universe as set forth by proponents拥护者 of the Scientific Revolution.The baroque encompassed various phases:In Italy,it mirrored the intensely religious mood of the Catholic Reformation;in Northern Europe,it reflected the intimate spirit of Protestant devotionalism as well as the reliance on sensory experience associated with the New Science.While the seventeenth century was a period of religious turbulence and heightened spirituality,it was also an age of scientific discovery and development.The Scientific Revolution that occurred in Europe between approximately 1600 and 1750 was not entirely sudden,nor were its foundations exclusively European.It owed much to a long history of science and technology that reached back to ancient Egypt,China,and Islam,to the construction of pyramids and cathedrals,the formulation of Euclidean geometry,and the invention of the windmill,the magnetic compass,and the printing press.vThe sciences advanced in logical progression through modern history:first a breakthrough in physics and mathematics in the 17th century,followed by rapid developments in the field of chemistry in the 18th century and then advances in biology in the 19th century and psychology in the 20th century.The Scientific RevolutionvThe advance in 17th century Europe began in science,in astronomy,physics and pure mathematics,owing to the work of Galieo,Kepler,Newton and Descartes.Their work helped to create modern science and in a sense,the modern world.Those who launched the Scientific Revolution invented new instruments with which to measure more precisely natural phenomena,to test scientific hypotheses,and to predict the operations of nature.They asserted that knowledge existed separate and apart from divine power and authority.vModern scientists regarded the universe as a mechanism that operated according to its own laws.Despite unrelenting不断的 Church opposition,scientists pressed on to devise new instruments for measurement and new procedures for experimentation and analysis.The slide rule计算尺,the magnet,the microscope,the mercury barometer,and the air pump were among the many products of the European quest to calculate,investigate,predict,and ultimately master nature.vSeventeenth-century Western scientists investigated the workings of the human eye and explored the genesis起源 and propagation of light,thus advancing the science of optics beyond the frontiers of Islamic and Renaissance scholarship.They accurately described the action of gases and the circulation of the blood.And they devised the branches of higher mathematics known as coordinate坐标 geometry,trigonometry三角法,kand infinitesimal极微小的 calculus,by means of which modern scientists might analyze the phenomena of space and motion.Kepler and GalileovJohannes Kepler:German mathematician,made detailed records of the planets movements which substantiated 证实the heliocentric以太阳为中心的 theory.vKeplers Laws:v1.Each planet moves in an ellipse椭圆,not a perfect circle,with the sun at one focus;v2.Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it;v3.The square of the period of revolution公转 of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean 平均的distance of the planet from the sun.v These three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newtons discovery of the laws of gravitation.vGalileo Galilei(1564-1642)vHe was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies.Galileo discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics.He formulated the law of falling bodies,which proclaimed that the earths gravity attracts all objects-regardless of shape,size,or densityat the same rate of acceleration.Sir Issac Newton(1642-1727)vAs a mathematician,he invented calculus微积分.In optics,he discovered that white light is composed of all the colours of the spectrum.vIn physics,his discovery of the law of the universal gravitation万有引力 is the most important,which states that every body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional成反比 to the square of the distance between them.From his law of universal gravitation Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets,the tides,and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits椭圆形轨道 on the part of the planets.vHis work represents a practical synthesis合成 of seventeenth-century physics and mathematics and the union of the inductive and deductive methods演绎.Newton advanced the new science from its speculative and empirical 以观察实验为依据phases(represented by Copernicus and Galileo,respectively)to the stage of codification.He brought Keplers laws of celestial mechanics 天体力学and Galileos terrestrial地球的 law of falling bodies into an all-embracing theory of universal gravitation that described every physical movement in the universe.The New LearningvOneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesoftheScientificRevolutionwasitsglorificationoftheempiricalmethod,amannerofinquirythatdependedondirectobservationandexperimentation.Naturalphenomena,arguedseventeenth-centuryscientists,providedevidencefromwhichonemightdrawgeneralconclusionsoraxioms公理,accordingtoaprocessknownasinductivereasoning归纳推理.TheleadingspokesmanforthenewlearningwastheEnglishscientistandpoliticianFrancisBacon(1561-1626).FrancisBacon(1561-1626)vIn 1620,Bacon published his Novum Organum(“New Method”),an impassioned热烈的 plea for objectivity and clear thinking and the strongest defense of the empirical method ever written.vBacon argued that human beings must be aided by science and scientific study guided by precise methods.He promoted an objective system of experimentation,tabulation表格,and record keeping that became the touchstone标准of modern scientific inquiry.In an era dominated by fervent热烈的 spirituality灵性,he demanded a separation of religion and science.vUnlike earlier humanists,Bacon turned his back on Aristotle and classical science.A prophet of the new learning,he sought to eliminate errors in reasoning derived from blind adherence to traditional sources of authority and religious belief.He condemned all obstacles to the progress of science and championed the idea that knowledge was the most powerful tool for material achievement.vAccording to Bacon,man could command and conquer nature.The power to do so was knowledge.He founded modern inductive method,which was in opposition to the accepted deductive method which emphasized reasoning from a known principle to the unknown and from the general to the specific.vPeople should overcome all the preconceptions先入之见,all the prejudices,all the assumptions,sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs.vQuotations from Bacon:vThe Monuments of wit survive the monuments of power.vKnowledge is power.vSome books are to be tasted,others to be swallowed,and some few to be chewed and digested.vReading maketh a full man,conference a ready man,and writing an exact man.Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679vAuthor of Leviathan,one of the most celebrated political treatises专著 in European literature.vA.Hobbess Materialist Viewsv Hobbes argued that our knowledge comes from experience.He believed that only material things are perceptible,and knowable to us.Our own experience alone is certain.Therefore he said that men could not know anything about the existence of God because they could not have any idea of Him in their minds answerable to His nature.vHe was a mechanical materialist机械唯物论.vB.The Natural State of WarvHobbes held that men are by nature equal in bodily and mental capacities.From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of their ends.And therefore if any two men desire the same thing,which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy,they become enemies.The fact that every individual seeks his own conservation and his own enjoyment leads to competition and mistrust of others.So Hobbes believed that man is selfish by nature.Until such time as men live under a common power,they are in a state of war with one another.vC.The Laws of NaturevBecause the condition of man is a condition of war of every man against every man,Hobbes argued,it is obviously in mans interest to emerge from this natural state of war;and the possibility of doing so is provided by nature itself.For by nature men have their passions and their reason.It is their passions which bring about the state of war.But at the same time the fear of death and need for security drive man to accept certain laws of nature.So reason tells men that peace is necessary for survival and also suggests certain articles of peace,upon which men may be drawn to agreement.These articles are called the Laws of Nature.vD.The Theory of the Social ContractvHobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war,keep them in awe,and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their agreements,and observation of the laws of nature,it is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.This means that individuals should“confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon one assembly of men,that may reduce all their wills by plurality of voices,unto one will.”vIn Hobbess theory,the powers of the sovereign君主 must be absolute,and it is only by the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided.And the sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract.The subjects of the sovereign cannot either change the form of government or repudiate否认 the authority of the sovereign.Rebellion is wrong,which will lead men back to the natural state of war.As to the form of government,he preferred monarchy.He believed that government was not created by God,but by men themselves.John Locke(1632-1704)vWritten 70 years after Bacons Novum Organum,Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding(1690)confirmed his predecessors thesis that everything one knows derives from sensory experience.According to Locke,the human mind at birth is a blank slate upon which experienceconsisting of sensation,followed by reflectionwrites the script.No innate moral principles or ideas exist;rather,human knowledge consists of the progressive accumulation of the evidence of the senses.vThe implications of Lockes principles of knowledge strongly affected European and later American thought and helped to shape an optimistic view of human destiny.For,if experience influenced human knowledge and behavior,argued the empiricists,then,surely,improving the social environment would work to perfect the human condition.Lockes ideas became basic to eighteenth-century liberalism,as well as to all political ideologies that held that human knowledge,if properly applied,would produce happiness for humankind.The Social ContractvLocke believed that society is out of necessity,convenience and mans own interest,and therefore,society is natural to man.Political society and government rest on a rational foundation.The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government.Social contract must be understood as involving the individuals consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.Absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and that the danger to liberty comes mainly from absolute monarchy.vThe ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.If the ruler substitutes his arbitrary will for the laws,or if he hinders the legislative from coming together at the proper time or from acting freely,or if he arbitrarily changes the method of election without the peoples consent and contrary to the interest of the people,or if he invades the property of citizens or tries to obtain arbitrary dominion over their lives,liberties or property,in a word,if he violates the social contract,then government is effectively dissolver.When government is dissolved in any of these ways,rebellion is justified.The people shall judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate.Rene Descartes(1596-1650)vDescartes was a philosopher,physicist and mathematician.He is regarded as the founder of modern Western philosophy and the father of analytic geometry.His writings revived the ancient Greek quest to discover how one knows what one knows,and his methods made the discipline of philosophy wholly independent of theology.vWhereas Bacon gave priority to knowledge gained through the senses,Descartes,the supreme rationalist,valued abstract reasoning and mathematical speculation.Descartes did not deny the importance of the senses in the search for truth,but he observed that our senses might deceive us.vHe championed a procedure for investigation called deductive reasoning,which began with clearly established general premises and moved toward the establishment of particular truths.vRules set forth by Descartes:vNever accept anything as true that you do not clearly know to be true;dissect a problem into as many parts as possible;reason from simple to complex knowledge;and finally,draw complete and exhaustive 全面的conclusions.vDescartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable不容置疑的 truth.And he found this truth in this motto:“dutito ergo cogito:cogito ergo sum”(“I doubt,therefore I think:I think,therefore I am.”)A thing that is thinking is one that doubts,understands,conceives,affirms证实,denies,wills,imagines,and feel.Doubting is thinking,thinking is the essence of the mind.vDescartes believed some ideas are innate.All clear and distinct ideas are innate.And all scientific knowledge is knowledge of or by means of innate ideas.Knowledge of the universe and certain principles and laws of physics is innate.We can construct metaphysics and physics by logic deduction from a number of innate ideas implanted in the mind by nature,or by God.Literature vJohn Milton and the English RevolutionvParadise LostvParadise RegainedvPierre Corneille(1604-1684)vLe cidvJean Racine(1637-1699)vAndromaque,PhaedravMoliere(1622-1673)vTartuffeBaroque PaintingvDerived from the Portuguese word barocco,which describes the irregularly shaped pearls commonly featured in ornamental European decoration,the term baroque is associated with such features as ornateness装饰华丽的,spatial grandeur,and theatrical flamboyance华丽.In painting,the baroque style is characterized by asymmetric compositions,strong contrasts of light and dark,and bold,illusionistic effects.vThe baroque style originated in Italy and then spread to Spain,Portugal,France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherlands in the North.vThroughout Italy,Spain,and other parts of the West,the baroque style mirrored the spirit of the Catholic Reformation;but in Northern Europe,where Protestant loyalties remained strong,another phase of the style emerged.The differences between the two are easily observed in the arts:In Italy,church interiors were ornate and theatrical夸张的;but in England,the Netherlands,and Northern Germany,where Protestants as a matter of faith were committed to private devotion rather than public ritual,churches were stripped of ornamentation,and the mood was more somber忧郁的 and intimate.Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini 1598-1680vThe Ecstasy of St.TheresaMichelangelo Caravaggio 1573-1610vThe Calling of St.Matthew,The CardsharpsPeter Paul Rubens 1577-1640Diego Velazquez 1599-1600,The Maids of HonorVan Rijn Rembrandt 16061669Blinding of Samson,The Polish RiderJan Vermeer 1632-1675vView of Delft,A Girl with a Pearl EarringPalace of Versailles Garden FrontPalace of Versailles Garden FrontPalace of Versailles