复习内容《简明英语语言学教程》导学手册

英语语言学导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求 英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。 本课程教学的具体要求是： 系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。二、教学内容I. Introduction 1. Linguistics 1.1 What is linguistics? 1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar 1.3 The scope of linguistics 2. Language 2.1 What is language? 2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology 1. The phonic medium of language 2. Phonetics 2.1 What is phonetics? 2.2 The speech organs 2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions 2.4 Some major articulatory variables 2.5 Classification of English speech sounds 3. Phonology 3.1 Phonetics and phonology 3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 3.4 Some rules of phonology 3.5 Suprasegmental features-Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology 1. Morphology 1.1 Open classes and closed classes 1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation 2. Morphemes-the minimal units of meaning 3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes 4. Morphological rules of word formation 5. CompoundsIV. Syntax 1. Syntax 1.1 What is syntax? 1.2 Sentence 2. Structuralist approach 2.1 Form classes 2.2 Constituent structure 2.3 Immediate constituent analysis 2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 2.5 Advantage of IC analysis 2.6 Labelled tree diagram 2.7 Discontinuous constituents 3. Transformational-generative grammar 3.1 Competence and performance 3.2 Criteria for judging grammars 3.3 Generative aspect 3.4 Transformational aspect 3.5 Deep and surface structures 4. The Standard Theory 4.1 Components of a TG 4.2 The base 4.3 Transformations 4.4 The form of T-rules 4.5 The phonological component 4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics 1. Semantics 1.1 What is semantics? 2. Some views on semantics 2.1 Naming things 2.2 Concepts 2.3 Context and behaviourism 2.4 Mentalism 3. Lexical meaning 3.1 Sense and reference 3.2 Synonymy 3.3 Polysemy and homonymy 3.4 Hyponymy 3.5 Antonymy 3.6 Relational opposites 4. Componential analysis 4.1 Componets of meaning 4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis 5. Sentence meaning 5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence? 5.2 Selectional restrictions 5.3 Basic statements about meaning 6. The semantic structure of sentences 6.1 Extended use of componential analysis 6.2 Prediction analysis 6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions 6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics 1. What does pragmatics study? 2. Speech act theory 3. Principles of conversation 3.1 The co-operative principle 3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change 1. Introduction 2. Sound change 3. Morphological and syntactic change 3.1 Change in “agreement” rule 3.2 Change in negation rule 3.3 Process of simplification 3.4 Loss of inflections 4. Vocabulary change 4.1 Addition of new words 4.2 Loss of words 4.3 Changes in the meaning of words 5. Some recent trends 5.1 Moving towards greater informality 5.2 The influence of American English 5.3 The influence of science and technology 6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society 1. The scope of sociolinguistics 1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society 1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study 1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics 2. Varieties of language 2.1 Varieties of language related to the user 2.2 Standard dialect 2.3 Varieties of language related to the use 3. Communicative competence 4. Pidgin and creole 5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture 1. Introduction 2. What is culture? 3. Language and meaning 4. Interdependence of language and culture 5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning 6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences 6.1 Greetings 6.2 Thanks and compliments 6.3 Terms of address 6.4 Colour words 6.5 Privacy and taboos 6.6 Rounding off numbers 7. Cultural overlap and diffusion 8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition 1. Introduction 1.1 Language acquisition 1.2 The beginning of language 1.3 Stages in first language acquisition 1.4 Age and native language acquisition 1.5 Common order in the development of language 1.6 Different rate of language development 2. Phonological development 2.1 Regular sound development 2.2 Mother and father words 2.3 Grammatical development 2.4 Vocabulary development 2.5 Sociolinguistic development 3. Theories of child language acquisition 3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition 3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition 1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition 2. The inadequacy of imitation theory 3. Interference 3.1 Phonological evidence 3.2 Lexical evidence 3.3 Grammatical evidence 4. Cross-association 5. Overgeneralization 6. Strategies of communication 7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。精讲多练的原则：教师精选教学重点，抓住关键问题和基本内容进行重点讲解，然后让学生多作有针对性的练习，培养学生的自学能力和独立思考能力。讨论式教学原则：针对本学科的不同理论体系，组织学生在广泛阅读的基础上进行讨论，把握各体系的利弊。四、教材戴炜栋等编著：简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社1989年版。1. INTRODUCTION 绪论本章学习目的要求本章是全书的绪论，学习的目的是弄清语言学是一门什么样的学科， 以及人类语言的本质和特点。学习本章要求认识、理解语言研究的对象和方法、语言研究的各个层面以及语言学的各个分支，弄清语言学研究中的几对基本概念；此外，通过学习还要求对人类语言的本质有一个清楚的认识，通过对人类语言特点的学习，对人类语言交际和动物传递信息方式之间的根本不同有一个正确的认识。I 语言学基本知识1. Linguistics 语言学1.1 What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic (or scientific ) study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions “What is language?” and “How does language work?”A linguist is a person who studies linguistics. His task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar 语言学与传统语法Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.a) Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive 语言学是描写性的而非规定性的 A linguist is interested in what people actually say, not what people should say. He tries to describe language in all aspects, but not prescribe rules of “correctness”. He would prefer to be an observer and recorder of facts, but not a judge. He regards the changes in language and language use as the result of a natural and continuous process, not something to be feared. b) Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. 语言学认为语是第一性的而非书面语 Linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for a number of reasons. Historically, speech existed long, long before writing systems came into being. Genetically, children always learn to speak before they learn to write. Therefore, speech is considered as the primary medium. That is: the spoken first, then the written. c) Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 语言学与传统语法的差别还在于它不是把语言都放在拉丁语法框架里。 Traditional grammar assumes that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit. Whereas, linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all the others. They are trying to set up a universal framework based on the features shared by most of the languages.1.3 The Scope of Linguistics 语言学的范围 The scope of linguistics includes phonetics（speech sound）, phonology (sound patterning), morphology (the form of words), syntax (the arrangements of words), semantics (meaning), psycholinguistics (the relationship between language and mind), sociolinguistics (the relationship between language and society), and historical linguistics (language change). Synchronic linguistics studies the description of a language at a particular point in time. Diachronic linguistics studies the description of language development through time.2. Language 语言2.1 What is language? 什么是语言？ Language is a system of symbols designed for the purpose of human communication.2.2 The Defining Properties of Human Language 语言的结构特征 The design features refer to the defining properties of human language as against animal communication. They are:a) Creativity 创造性 It refers to the ability that we all have to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including sentences that we have never heard before, but that are appropriate to the situation in which they are uttered.b) Arbitrariness 任意性Since the time of Saussure, it has been accepted that the linguistic sign (the word) is arbitrary. This means that there is no motivated relationship between the sign and what it is a sign for. The symbols have been chosen arbitrarily for the message.C) Duality of Structure (or Double Articulation) 结构两重性 It refers to that language consists of two levels of structures . At a higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words); at a lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves. The organization of language from a lower level of sounds into a higher level of meaning is known as duality of structure. d) Displacement 移位性 Human language can communicate about things that are absent as easily as about things that are present. In other words, human language can be used to refer to real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future. It can even be used to talk about language itself.c) Cultural Transmission (the need for learning) 文化迁移性 It refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact.ExercisesI. Match each of the following terms in column A with one of appropriate definitions in column B: Column A Column B1. Synchronic linguistics A. The design features refer to the defining properties of human language as against animal communication.2. Language B. Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic (or scientific ) study of language.3. design features C. A linguist is a person who studies linguistics.4. diachronic study D. Language is a system of symbols designed for the purpose of human communication.5. linguistics E. Diachronic linguistics studies the description of language development through time.6. the basic task for a linguist F. Synchronic linguistics studies the description of a language at a particular point in time.II.Explain each of the following terms in no more than 50 words:1 creativity 2. arbitrariness 3. duality of structure 4. cultural transmission 5. displacement 6. linguisticsIII.Develop the topic into a 200-word essay:1. The differences between linguistics and traditional grammar. II Phonology 音系学本章学习目的要求本章学习的中心内容是语音，包括语音学音系学两大部分。通过语音部分的学习，要求对各种发音器官及其作用有所了解，对英语的元音和辅音的发音方式和特点能进行描述,并能根据它们发音上的特点进行分类,能分清宽式标音法和窄式标音法的区别。通过音系学部分的学习，首先要弄清音系学和语音学的联系和区别，对音系学中的一些最基本的概念如音位、音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对等有所了解，知道几条音系学规则，譬如序列规则、同化规则，对重音、语调、声调等几种超切分音系特征的表意作用能举例说明。音系学基本知识1. The Phonic Medium of Language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Of the two media, speech is more basic than writing. The linguist is not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds that convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. Phonetics 语音学2.1 What is phonetics? 什么是语音学？Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language.Phonetics has three branches:a) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 It studies the speech organ, and the way in which speech sounds are produced.b) Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 It deals with the physical properties of the speech sounds.c) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 It is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.2.2 The Speech Organs 发音器官The articulatory apparatus contains three important areas: the pharyngeal (the throat), the oral cavity (the mouth) and the nasal cavity (the nose).a) The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔Across the glottis in the throat lie the vocal cords (声带). The vibration of the vocal cords gives the quality of voicing to the sounds produced. When the vocal cords are not vibrating, a voiceless sound is produced.b) The oral cavity 口腔 The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. The places involved are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate, the hard palate, the teeth ridge, the teeth and the lips.c) The nasal cavity 鼻腔 The nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth. When the air is led pass through the nasal cavity, nasal sounds are produced. The nasal cavity is hardly able to provide any other modification apart from this.1.3 Narrow and Broad Transcriptions 严式标音和宽式标音 The International Phonetic Alphabet is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Narrow transcription refers to the phonetic transcription with diacritics. Otherwise, it is a broad transcription, which is used in dictionaries and textbooks.2.4 Some Major Articulatory Variables 一些主要的发音变量a) Voicing 浊音化 Voicing is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords. All the vowels and some of the consonants are voiced.b) Nasality 鼻音化 When the airstream passes through the nasal cavity instead of oral, the sound produced is nasal.c) Aspiration 送气 A sound is aspirated when its production is accompanied by a puff of breath.2.5 Classification of English Speech Sounds 英语语音分类The basic difference between vowels and consonants is that in the production of the former the airstream meats with no obstruction (absence of obstruction) of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.5.1 Classification of English Consonants 英语辅音分类 The English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation and also in terms of place of articulation.a) According to manner of articulation 发音方法English consonants can be classified into: stops (total obstruction), fricatives (partial obstruction), affricates (total obstruction first, then partial obstruction), liquids (the escaping of airstream between part(s) of the tongue and the roof of the mouth), nasals ( with the soft palate lowered), glides (semivowels)b) According to place of articulation 发音部位English consonants can be classified into: bilabial (lips brought together), dental (between the tip and the upper teeth), alveolar (between the tip and the teeth-ridge), palatal (between the back of the tongue and the hard palate), velar (between the back of the tongue and the velum and glottal (the vocal cords) .2.5.2 Classification of English vowels 英语元音分类Vowels can be differentiated by a number of factors:a) According to the place of the tongue 舌头的部位Vowels can be distinguished as front, central or back.b) According to the shape of the tongue 舌头的形状Vowels can be classified as rounded vowels (with lip-rounding) and unrounded vowels (with no lip-rounding).c) According to the openness of the mouth 张口度Vowels can be classified into open vowels, close vowels, semi-open vowels, semi-close vowels.d) According to the length of the vowels 元音的长度Vowels can be described as long vowels and short vowels.2. Phonology 音系学3.1 Phonetics and Phonology 语音学与音系学 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language-the speech sounds. But they approach the subject from different point of view. Phonetics is general, descriptive and classificatory; it studies speech sounds as they are. On the contrary, phonology is concerned with the sound system of language; it studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds while phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages. Thus, the phonology of a language is the system and pattern of the speech sounds used in that particular language. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to know what is and what is not a sound in ones language.3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone 语音、音位与音位变体 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. A phoneme is a phonological unit, a unit of distinctive value. It is abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones refer to the phones that can represent a phoneme. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs.2.3 Phonemic Contrast, Complementary Distribution, and Minimal Pair 语音对立、互补分布与最小对立体a) Phonemic contrast 语音对立 If phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.b) Complementary distribution、互补分布If phonetically similar sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. The allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.c) Minimal Pair 最小对立体 When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are said to form a minimal pair.2.4 Some Rules of Phonology 音系学规则a) Sequential rules 序列规则 There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.b) Assimilation Rule 同化规则 The assimilation rule assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.c) Deletion Rule 省略规则 The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.2.5 Suprasegmental Features 超音段特征 The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called supramental features. They include stress, tone, and intonation.a) Stress 重音 Stress, including both word stress and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English.b) Tone 声调 In some languages the pitches of words can make a difference in their meaning. Such languages are called tone language.c) Intonation 语调 Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language. Three tones are frequently used in English: the falling tone, the rising tone, and the fall-rise tone. ExercisesI.Match each of the following terms in column A with one of the appropriate definitions in column B: Column A Column B1. acoustic phonetics