知识管理郭咸纲

Module Knowledge Management知识管理知识管理 郭郭 咸咸 纲纲William X.GUOOutline of Topics（主题概要主题概要）Importance of knowledge management 知识管理的重要性知识管理的重要性 Origin and Definition 起源和定义起源和定义 Types of knowledge and modes of knowledge creation 知识的类型和知识创造的方式知识的类型和知识创造的方式 Knowledge creating companies 知识创造型公司知识创造型公司 Implementing knowledge management 实施知识管理实施知识管理Importance of knowledge management(KM)（知识管理的重要性）知识管理的重要性）Knowledge is a form of capital.知识是资本的一种形式The single differentiator that is likely to last is innovation,and the raw material of innovation is knowledge 如果将资本比喻成创新，那么知识就是创新使用的原料Knowledge+Creativity=Innovation 知识创造创新Case-By 1987,only five years after Canon introduced its innovative mini-copier 74%of the companys revenues came from its business machines division例：佳能公司推出袖珍复印机5年后的1987年，公司74的收入来自商业机器分公司Formal KM is originated in consulting firms真正的知识管理开始于咨询公司Definition（定义）定义）Knowledge management is the process that helps organizations identify,select,organize,and capture important information and expertise within the organization and disseminate it to wherever it is needed to enhance organizational effectiveness and innovative potential.知识管理是协助组织识别、选择、组织和获取组织中的重要信息及专门技术的过程，并且将获取的信息和专门技术应用到组织中，以提高组织效率和创新潜力 Research on Knowledge Creation pioneered by Professors Nonaca and Takeuchi of Japan 日本的Nonaca和Takeuchi教授是研究知识创造的先驱Types of Knowledge and Modes of Knowledge Creation知识类型和知识创造的知识类型和知识创造的方式方式Types of Knowledge（知识的类型）知识的类型）Tacit knowledge-implicit,resides in experts heads,highly personal,difficult to communicate.内在知识隐藏、存在于专家的头脑中，非常私人的、很难交流。Explicit knowledge-formal,systematic,codified,publicly available,and can be easily communicated and shared.E.g.,Product specifications,scientific formula,computer programs.外在知识正式、系统、成文、可用并且易于交流和共享。例如：产品规格、科学公式、计算机程序。Understanding Tacit Knowledge（理解内在知识）理解内在知识）Philosopher Michael Polanyi:We can know more than we can tell.“哲学家Michael Polanyi：”我们所知比所说要多。”Deeply rooted in action and in an individuals commitment to a specific context 行为和个人活动归根究底有其原因 A master craftsman has a wealth of expertise at his fingertips“,but is often unable to articulate the scientific or technical principles behind what he knows 一个熟练的工匠拥有很多专业技术“在他的指尖”，但他常常不能与蕴藏在其后的知识和技术原理相结合。后续Understanding Tacit Knowledge（理解内在知识）理解内在知识）续前-The activities of a work group or team-一个工作团体或团队的行为-The kind of informal,hard-to-pin-down skills captured in the term know-how.“-专门技术中非正式的、不受约束性技能的掌握 Consists of mental models,beliefs,and perspectives so ingrained that we take them for granted 由智力模式、信念和观念组成，是根深蒂固的、我们必须赞同的Modes of Knowledge Creation To from Tacit Knowledge Explicit Knowledge Tacit KnowledgeSocializationExternalizationExplicit Knowledge InternalizationCombinationSocialization(Personalization)社会化（人性化）社会化（人性化）From tacit to tacit 从内在到内在 Apprenticeship and mentoring 学徒和老师 Job rotation between departments 部门间的工作轮换 Cross-function project teams 项目组的职责交叉Internalization（内在化）内在化）From explicit to tacit 从外在到内在 Learning by doing(after formal training and explicit instructions)从作中学（在正式培训和指导后）On the job training 在工作中锻炼Combination（联合）联合）Externalization（外在化）外在化）(Codification)（成文化）成文化）(Articulation)（清晰度）（清晰度）From tacit to explicit process of capturing and transferring of expert knowledge 从内在到外在获取和转化专门知识的过程 Ask experts to develop rules and processes based on their own tacit knowledge 要求专家在自身内在知识的基础上获取规则和方法 Knowledge engineers or systems analysts interview experts and extract their expertise 知识工程师和系统分析师会见专家并吸取他们的技术 后续Externalization（外在化）外在化）(Codification)（成文化）成文化）(Articulation)（清晰度）（清晰度）续前 Employees document problem solving processes and solutions on the job 员工记录工作中解决问题的方法和方案 Community of practice(on the Internet),chat groups,etc.实践社区（在Internet上）、交流团队等Four modes of knowledge creation at Matsushita Electric Company Matsushita电力公司的四种知识创造模式电力公司的四种知识创造模式 Ikuko Tanaka apprenticed with master baker to learn his skills（Ikuko Tanaka 为熟练的面包师当学徒以学习技能）She translated these secrets into explicit knowledge that she can communicate to her team members and others at Matsushita（她将这些秘密转化成外在知识，以与她的团队成员以及与Matsushita 的其他团队交流）The team then standardized this knowledge,putting it together into a manual or workbook and embodying it in a product（团队将这些知识标准化，集中起来装订成册，并应用于产品中）Through the experience of creating a new product,Tanaka and her team members enriched their own tacit knowledge base（在开发新产品的过程中，Tanaka 和她的团队成员不断丰富他们的内在知识）Knowledge-creating Companies知识创造型公司知识创造型公司Metaphor Analogy Model比喻比喻类推类推模型模型1.To enlarge the creative space and to link contradictory things and ideas through metaphor（通过比喻开拓创造空间和统一矛盾事务及观点）2.Resolve these contradictions through analogy（通过类推解决矛盾）3.Crystallize the created concepts and embody them in a model（明确创造性观念并在模型中具体化）New Product Development at Honda本田汽车的新产品开发本田汽车的新产品开发“Lets gamble”slogan inaugurated the process with a team of young engineers and designers,charged with the development of a new-concept car,not a cheaper version of Civic and Accord.“Lets gamble”开创了新的理念，让年轻的工程师和设计师负责新概念车的开发，而不是那些便宜的大众汽车和普通汽车。Team leader Hiroo Watanabe coined another slogan-Theory of Automobile Evolution to express an ideal.团队领导Hiroo Watanabe 提出另一个口号汽车发展推测以表达一种理想 后续New Product Development at Honda本田汽车的新产品开发本田汽车的新产品开发 续前 This led to discussion and debate and yet another slogan-Man-maximum,Machine-minimum.这些引发了讨论和辩论，还有一个口号最大人性化，最小机械化 Finally,the revolutionary“Tall Boy”Honda City emerged.最后，革命性的“Tall Boy”横空出世。Metaphor Analogy Model比喻比喻类推类推模型模型 The Honda case shows how Japanese companies use figurative language and symbols in product development process（本田汽车的例子展示了日本公司在产品开发过程中如何使用比喻方式和符号）A Metaphor may have multiple meanings or appear logically contradictory,but help to merge different areas of experience within a single,image or symbol.比喻可能造成多意或出现逻辑矛盾，但能将不同领域的经验统一成一个简单、形象和符号的。Philosopher Max Black:“two ideas in one phrase“哲学家Max Black：”一词有二意”后续Metaphor Analogy Model比喻比喻类推类推模型模型 续前 People put together what they know in new ways and begin to express tacit knowledge-what they know but cannot yet say 人们采用新方法整理他们所知的知识并表示成内在知识他们理解但不会表达 Effective in jumpstarting the creative process in the early stages of knowledge creation 在知识创造的初期高效的开始创造过程Implications-Senior Executives Vision暗示高级管理人员的想象暗示高级管理人员的想象 Needs to be open-ended and susceptible to a variety of different and even conflicting interpretations 需要容许几种不同甚至是矛盾的解释 Gives employees and work groups the freedom and autonomy to set their own goals 给予员工和工作团队一定的自由和自治权，以达到他们的自身目标 If a vision is too unambiguous,it becomes an order and do not foster the high degree of personal commitment on which effective knowledge creation depends 如果一个想象太明确，它将成为一个规则，阻止人的创造能力在更深层次上的激发，而这是有效知识创造所依靠的Conceptual UmbrellaSharp-“Optoelectronics to describe the merging of microelectronics with optical technologies Senior managers took up the word and magnified its impact far beyond the R&D and engineering departments in the companySharp“光电子学”是描述微电子学和光学技术的融合，高级管理人员使用该词并将其推广到R&D 以及工程部外的其他部门NEC-the metaphor C&C(for computers and communications),Categorized the companys knowledge base in terms of a few key technologiesNEC-“C&C”（计算机和通信），采用几个关键技术术语对公司知识加以分类Kao-“Surface active science“Guided its diversification into products ranging from soap detergents to cosmetics to floppy disks all natural derivatives of Kaos core knowledge base Kao-“Surface active science“指导它的产品多样化，从肥皂、清洁剂到化妆品，到软盘一切自然从Kao的核心知识演化而来Metaphor Analogy Model比喻比喻类推类推模型模型 Metaphors trigger the knowledge-creation process through intuition and linking conflicting images 比喻通过直觉和统一矛盾现象触发知识创造过程 The next step is analogy,a more structured process of reconciling contradictions.下一步是类推，一个更加结构化的缓和矛盾的过程 An intermediate step between pure imagination and logical thinking 纯想象和逻辑思考的中间一步 Why is a beer can a useful analogy for a personal copier?为什么啤酒罐是一个个人复印机的有用类推？Beer can and Canon personal copier啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机 Canon was developing a revolutionary mini-copier that is reliable,easy and cheap to make.佳能开发了一种微型复印机可靠、简单且造价低廉 Plan to make the photosensitive copier drum(the source of 90%of all maintenance problems)disposable 计划制造可随意使用的感光复印机鼓 The team was discussing design problems over some drinks 开发团队基于一些饮料讨论设计问题 后续Beer can and Canon personal copier啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机 续前 Tanaka(the team leader)held one of the beer cans and wondered aloud,How much does it cost to manufacture this can?“Tanaka（团队领导）拿着一个啤酒罐，惊异的叫道：“制造这个易拉罐的成本是多少？”The question led the team to speculate whether the same process for making an aluminum beer could be applied to the manufacture of an aluminum copier drum 这个问题引发了团队的思索，能否象制造铝啤酒罐一样制造铝复印机鼓Metaphor Analogy Model比喻比喻类推类推模型模型 The last step in the knowledge-creation process 知识创造的最后一步 More immediately conceivable than a metaphor or an analogy 比比喻和类推更直接想到 Contradictions get resolved and concepts become transferable through consistent and systematic logic 通过协调和系统逻辑，矛盾可以解决、概念可以转化 Makes the knowledge available to the rest of the company 使得知识对于公司的其他地方是可利用的 Developing low-cost disposable copier drum resulted in new technologies for other office products such as microfilm readers and laser printers 开发低成本的可随意使用的复印机鼓，为其他办公产品引入了一种新技术，如缩影胶片阅读器和激光打印机 By 1987 only five years after the mini-copier was introduced 74%of Canons revenues came from its business machines division 1987年，微型复印机开发后的5年后，佳能74的收入来自商业机器分公司 Proof the knowledge is a form of capital.证明了知识是资本的一种形式Strategic Impact of Knowledge Creation at Canon佳能知识创造的战略影响佳能知识创造的战略影响Creating knowledge in Organizations via Redundancy通过冗余在组织中创造知识通过冗余在组织中创造知识 The fundamental principle of organizational design in knowledge-creating companies is redundancy in knowledge-creating responsibilities.知识创造型公司的组织设计的基本原则是知识创造职责的冗余 At Canon,a team is divided into competing groups to develop a variety of approaches and perspectives-principle of internal competition.在佳能，一个团队分成两个互相竞争组，按不同的方法和观点发展内部竞争法则 May be wasteful in the short run,but new ideas proliferate and the organizations knowledge-creating ability is accelerated.这可能在短期内造成浪费，但能带来新的想法并增强组织的知识创造能力Strategic Job Rotation战略岗位轮换战略岗位轮换A second way to build redundancy to help employees understand the business from multiple perspectives建立冗余机制的第二种方法可帮助员工从不同的角度理解公司Makes organizational knowledge more fluid and easier to put into practice使组织的知识更具有“流动性”，更容易付于实施At Kao Corporation,a Japanese consumer-products manufacturer,employees are expected to hold at least three different jobs in any given ten-year periodKao公司，一家日本的消费品制造企业，它的员工总被期望在任意10年中至少从事三份不同的工作Researchers often retire from the R&D department by the age of 40 in order to transfer to other departments such as marketing,sales,or production研究人员一般在40岁时从R&D退休，.投向其他部门，如市场、销售和产品Free Access of Information自由访问信息自由访问信息 A third way to build redundancy 建立冗余的第三种方法 When information differentials exist,members of an organization can no longer interact on equal terms,which hinders the search for different interpretations of new knowledge 当不同信息存在时，组织成员将不再受相当条件的制约，这些条件是阻止搜索新知识的不同解释的 Kao does not limit access to information among employees.All company information(with the exception of personnel data)is stored in a single integrated database,open to any employee regardless of position Kao在公司员工中不对信息访问加以限制。公司的所有信息（个人数据除外）都存放在一个独立的完整数据库中，并对公司的所有员工开放，而不论其职位Knowledge-creating Roles（知识创造的角色）知识创造的角色）Creating new knowledge is the product of a dynamic interaction among three roles创造新知识是三种角色动态交互的结果 Frontline employees are often caught up in their own narrow perspective and lose sight of the broader context 前线员工常为他们自己的狭隘看法所迷惑，而失去对全局的把握Senior managers articulate metaphors,symbols,and conceptual umbrella that orient the knowledge-creating activities of employees.They judge and test the value of new knowledge created and ask broad questions:高级管理人员结合比喻、象征和概念伞，以确定员工知识创造的方向。他们判断并检验新知识创造的价值并提出更广泛的问题：What are we trying to learn?（我们将要学什么？）What do we need to know?（我们需要知道什么?）Middle Managers and Teams(中层管理人员和团队中层管理人员和团队)Middle managers provide a conceptual framework that helps frontline employees to make sense of the chaotic market signals 中层管理人员提供一个概念框架，以帮助前线员工搞清混乱市场信息的意思。Teams play a central role in knowledge creation as its members create diverse points of views and then integrate into a new collective perspective.团队在知识创造过程中起了核心的作用，当成员提出不同观点时，它便综合所有成一个新的综合观点。后续Middle Managers and Teams(中层管理人员和团队中层管理人员和团队)续前 Team leaders are typically middle managers who synthesize the tacit knowledge of both frontline employees and senior executives,make it explicit,and incorporate it into new technologies and products 团队领导是典型的中层管理人员，他们综合前线员工和高级管理人员的内在知识，使其外在化，并将其融合入新产品和技术中。They are the true knowledge engineers of the knowledge-creating company 他们是知识创造型公司真正的“知识工程师”。Implementing knowledge management (KM)执行知识管理执行知识管理Implementing knowledge management (KM)执行知识管理执行知识管理1)Knowledge management concepts（知识管理的概念）2)Preparation for KM initiatives（知识管理的初始准备）3)Knowledge management strategy（知识管理战略）4)Elements of KM practice（知识管理实践的基础）5)KM technologies（知识管理技术）6)Case studies（示例学习）Preparation Steps for KM Initiatives知识管理初始准备的步骤知识管理初始准备的步骤 1)Appoint a chief knowledge officer and create a KM strategy that is linked to corporate strategic objectives.任命一个首席知识官员并建立一个知识管理战略是与公司战略目标相关的 2)Deploy KM technological infrastructure to enable the process of creating,sharing and disseminating knowledge.配置知识管理技术的下部组织能够建立、共享和传播知识 3)Strengthen top management commitment by showing them successful KM practice in other companies.通过展现其他公司成功的知识管理经验加强高层管理 4)Develop a culture and reward system of trust and learning to foster collaboration and innovation.Make employees feel comfortable sharing knowledge 建立信任的文化氛围及回报系统，培养协作和创新。使员工感觉到知识共享的好处。Knowledge Management Strategy 知识管理战略Driven by companys competitive strategy 由公司竞争战略驱动 How it creates value for customers（怎样为顾客创造价值）How that value supports an economic model（价值如何支持经济模型）How the companys people deliver on the value and the economics（公司的人们如何实现价值）Some companies automate knowledge management(Codification)一些公司实行自动知识管理Others rely on their people to share knowledge through more traditional means(Personalization)另一些公司通过传统方式，依靠他们的员工共享知识Different Knowledge Management Strategies不同的知识管理战略不同的知识管理战略Codification can be the main emphasis for more structured tasks.This requires comprehensive electronic repository of“knowledge objects”to facilitate reuse of explicit knowledge.Examples Anderson Consulting and Ernst&Young for technology and ERP implementation.成文化主要强调将任务结构化。这要求全面的“知识对象”电子知识库，以方便的重复使用外在知识。如 Anderson Consulting、Ernst&Young for technology 和 执行ERPPersonalization can be the main emphasis for less structured tasks.This requires intensive person-to-person contacts,emails,videoconferences,etc.to facilitate exchange of tacit knowledge.Examples-McKinsey,BCG,and Bain for customized corporate strategy consulting.人性化主要强调任务的非结构性。这要求加强人与人的交流、电子邮件和视频会议等，以方便内在知识的交换。如McKinsey、BCG和 Bain for customized corporate strategy consulting.Codification（成文化）成文化）Knowledge is extracted from the person who developed it,made independent of that person,and reused for various purposes 知识从提出者处获取，并独立于提出者，重复使用于不同的目的Codification Ernst&Young（成文化成文化 Ernst&Young）Ernst&Young executives have invested a lot to make sure that the codification process works efficiently Ernst&Young的决策者进行了大量投资以保证成文化运作有效进行 The 250 people at the Center for Business Knowledge manage the electronic repository and help consultants find and use information 商业知识中心有250名员工，他们管理电子知识库以帮助顾问寻找和使用信息 Specialists write reports and analyses that many teams can use 专家撰写报告并分析可使用的 后续Codification Ernst&Young（成文化成文化 Ernst&Young）续前 Each of Ernst&Youngs more than 40 practice areas has a staff member who helps codify and store documents Ernst&Young在超过40个领域有成员，他们帮助成文、存档 Resulting area databases are linked through a network.结果域的数据库通过网络连接Codification Ernst&Young 成文化 Ernst&Young Randall Love,an Ernst&Young partner,was preparing an important bid for a large industrial manufacturer Ernst&Young 的合作伙伴Randall Love准备对一个大的工业制造商的投标计划 He searched the electronic knowledge management repository for relevant knowledge 它查找电子知识管理库以寻找相关知识 He found and used several previously developed solutions to develop a presentation on the industry 找到并使用以前的几个解决方案以完成行业介绍 He also found and used propositions that helped him estimate how much money the client would save by implementing the system.同时，还找到并使用相关资料，以帮助预测客户使用该系统可节省多少钱 后续Codification Ernst&Young 成文化 Ernst&Young 续前 Love won the project and closed the sale in two months instead of the typical four to six 在2个月内赢得项目并完成交易，而一般需要4到6个月 He also found programming documents,technical specifications,training materials,and change management documentation in the repository which saved research and development time 还在知识库中找到了设计文档、技术规格、培训材料和变动管理文件，这便节省了研发时间 Codification saved the team and the client one full year of work 成文化为团队和客户节省了1年时间Codification:Creating Value for Customers成文化：为客户创造价值 Consultants reuse existing bricks while applying their skills to construct something new 顾问在创建新事物时可使用已存在的模块 Customer benefits because the consultants can build a reliable,high-quality information system faster and at a better price than others by using work plans,software code,and solutions that have been fine-tuned and proven successful 客户也从中获益，这是由于顾问能建立可靠的、高质的信息系统，且该系统比其他已很好运行或证明成功的工作计划、软件程序和其他解决方案更快、更廉价Codification:Turning a Profit成文化：带来盈利 Reuse of knowledge saves work,reduces communications costs,and allows a company to take on more projects重复使用知识可简化工作、减少通信费用且能使公司承担更多的项目 Firms such as Andersen Consulting and Ernst&Young have been able to grow at rates of 20%or more in recent years 象Andersen Consulting 和 Ernst&Young等公司近些年都以20或更高的速度增长Codification-Managing People成文化管理员工 Ernst&Young and Andersen Consulting hire undergraduates from top universities and train them to develop and implement change programs and information systems Ernst&Young 和 Andersen Consulting在在高校雇佣大学生，培训他们开发和执行方案改造和信息系统 Using the knowledge management repository,the consultants work through scenarios designed to improve business processes 顾问使用知识管理库完成方案设计以提高商业运作水平 They are implementers,not inventors 他们是执行者，不是发明者Codification Not just for Consultants成文化不仅仅是给顾问的成文化不仅仅是给顾问的 Health Care Access Health（卫生保健 Access Health）When someone calls the center,a registered nurse uses the companys clinical decision architecture to assess the callers symptoms,rule out possible conditions,and recommend a home remedy,doctors visit,or emergency room trip 当有人向中心呼救，护士便根据“临床诊断体系”诊断呼救者症状，排除可能的病症，并推荐家庭治疗、医师诊断或急救 The knowledge repository contains algorithms of the symptoms of more than 500 illnesses 知识库包含超过500种病的症状情况 The first 300 algorithms that Access Health developed have each been used an average of 8,000 times per year 前300种每年被使用超过8000次Codification at Dell Dell的文化的文化 Direct sale of made-to-order inexpensive PCs-Strategy Invested in a knowledge management system with an electronic repository that specify endless configurations.Customers choose configurations from a menu,suppliers provide components based on their orders,and manufacturing retrieves orders from the system and schedules assembly Dell does not deliver highly customized orders,and it raises its prices considerably for orders with special components.In I997,Dell shipped 11 million PCs.Those systems were put together from 40,000 possible configurations(competitors typically offer only about 100 configurations),Each configuration was used on average 275 times That level of reuse allows Dell to lower its costs and charge less than the competition This knowledge reuse model helped the company to grow revenues 83%annually over the last four yearsPersonalization人性化人性化 Focus on dialogue between individuals,not knowledge objects in a database 注重人之间的对话，而不是数据库中的知识对象 Knowledge is shared not only face-to-face but also over the telephone,by e-mail,and via videoconferences 知识是共享的，不仅是面对面的，也通过电话、电子邮件和视频会议 Knowledge that has not been codified and probably couldnt be transferred 知识并非成文化且可能不能被转化Personalization-BainMarcia Blenko had a strategy problem for a large British financial institutionRequired geographic and product-line expertise,a broad understanding of the industry,and a large dose of creative thinkingBlenko knew several partners with relevant expertiseShe left voice mail messages with them and checked Bains people finder database for more contactsShe connected