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Unit1. The ability to predict what the writer is going/ about/ trying to say next is both an aid to understanding and a sign of it. A prediction begins from the moment you read the title and from expectations of what he book is likely to contain. Even if the expectations/predictions are contradicted, they are useful because they have started you thinking about the topic and made you actively involved. If you formulate your predictions as questions which you think the text may answer, you are preparing yourself to read for a purpose: to see which of your questions are in fact dealt with and what answers are offered. If your reading is more purposeful you are likely to understand better. Naturally your predictions/expectations will not always be correct. This does not matter at all as long as you recognize when they are wrong, and why. In fact mistaken predictions can tell you the source of misunderstanding and help you to avoid certain false assumptions.Prediction is possible at a number of levels. From the title of the book you can know/foretell the topic and the possibly something about the treatment. From the beginning of the sentences, you can often predict how the sentence will end. Between these extremes, you can predict what will happen next in a story, or how a writer will develop/present his argument, or what methods will be used to test a hypothesis.Because prediction ensures the readers active involvement, it is worth training.Unit2. Education is not an end, but a means to an end. In other words, we do not educate children just/only for the purpose of educating them. Our purpose is to fit them for life. In many modern countries it has for some time been fashionable to think that, by free education for all, one can solve all the problems of society and build a perfect nation. But we can already see that free education for all is not enough; we find in some/many countries a far larger number of people with university degrees than there are jobs for them to fill. Because of their degrees, they refuse to do what they think to be low work, and, in fact, work with hands is thought to be dirty and shameful in such countries. But we have only to think a moment to see/know/understand that the work of a completely uneducated farmer is far more important than that of a professor. We can live without education, but we die if we have no food. If no one cleaned our streets and took the rubbish away from our houses, we should get terrible diseases in our towns. In fact, when we say that all of us must be educated to fit ourselves for life, it means that we must be ready/willing/educated/taught to do whatever job suited to our brain and ability, and to realize that all jobs are necessary to society, that is very wrong/incorrect/erroneous to be ashamed of ones work or to scorn someone elses. Only such a type of education can be called valuable to society.Unit3. Human beings learn to communicate with each other will nonlinguistic means as well as linguistic ways/means/ones. All of us are familiar with the say it wasnt what he said; it was the way that he said it when, by using/saying the word way we mean something about the particular vice quality that was in evidence., or the set of a shoulder, or the obvious tension of certain muscles. A message may even be sent by the accompanying tone and gestures, so that each of Im ready, you are beautiful, and I dont know where he is can mean the opposite of any such interpretation. Often we have/meet/encounter/experience difficulty in finding exactly what in the communication causes the change of meaning, and any statement we make leads to the source of the gap between the literal meaning of the words and the total message that is likely to be expressed in impressionistic terms. It is likely to refer to some thing like a “glint” in a persons eyes, or a “threatening” gesture, or “provocative” manner. Unit4. How do the birds find their way on their enormously long journeys? The young birds are not taught the road by their parents, because often the parents fly off first. We have no idea how the birds find their way, particularly as many of them fly at/by night, when landmarks could hardly be seen. And other birds migrate over the sea, where there are no landmarks at all. A certain kind of plover, for instance/example, nests in Canada. At the end of the summer these birds migrate from Canada to South America; they fly 2,500 miles, non-stop, over the ocean. Not only is this very long flight an extraordinary feat of endurance, but there are no landmarks on the ocean to guide/direct the birds.It has been suggested that birds can sense the magnetic lines of force stretching from the north to south magnetic pole of the earth, and so direct themselves. But all experiments hitherto made to see whether magnetism has any effect/influence whatsoever on animals have given negative results. Still, where there is such a biological mystery as migration, even improbable experiments are worth trying. It/this was being done in Poland, before the invasion of that country, on the possible influence of magnetism on path-finding. Magnets were attached to the birds heads to see if/whether their direction-sense was confused thereby. These unfinished experiments had, of course, to be stopped. Unit5. Man first existed on earth half a million years ago. Then he was little more than an animal; but early man had several big advantages over the animals. He had a large head/brain, he had an upright body, he had clever hands; he had in his brain special groups of nerve cells, not found in animals, that enabled him to invent a language and use it to communicate with his fellow men. The ability to speak was of very great use/value/significance/importance because it was allowed men to share ideas, and to plan together, so that tasks impossible for a single person could be successfully under-taken by intelligent team-work. Speech also enabled ideas to be passed on from generation to generation so that the stock of human knowledge slowly increased. It was these special advantages that put men far ahead of all other living creatures in the struggle for survival/existence. They can use their intelligence handing/overcoming their difficulties and master them. Unit6. Language varies according to sex and occupation. The language of man differs subtly from that of women. Men do not usually use expressions such as “its darling,” and women tend not to swear as extensively as men. Likewise, the language used in addressing men and women differs subtly: we can compliment a man on a new necktie with the compliment/words “what a pretty tie, that is!” but not with “how pretty you look today!” - an expression reserved for complimenting a woman. The occupation of a person causes his language to vary, particular in the use he makes of technical terms, that is, in the use he makes of the jargon of his vacation. Soldiers, dentist, hairdressers, mechanics, yachtsmen, and skiers all have their particular special languages. Sometimes the consequence is that such persons have difficulty in communicating with people outside the vacation on professional maters because the technical vocabulary is not understood by all. Although we can relate certain kinds of jargon to levels of occupation and professional training, we must also note that all occupations have some jargon, even these of the criminal underworld. There may well be a more highly developed use of jargon in occupations that require considerable education, in which words, and the concepts they use, are manipulated rather than objects, for example in the legal and teaching circle/world/field and in the world of finance. Unit7. The space age began on October 4, 1957, when Sputnik I was launched. This first man-made satellite was followed by many others, some of which went around the sun. Now the conquest of the space between the planets, and between the earth and the sun, continues at a rapid rate. Each mew satellite and space probe gives scientists new information. As men explore outer space, some of the questions they have long asked/wondered about will be answered at last. The greatest question of all concerns life itself. Is there intelligent life out side the earth? Are there people, or creatures of some sort/kind living on Mars, Venus, or some other planet of the solar system? Are there planets orbiting/going/circling around stars other than our sun?The only kind of life we know about would have to be upon a planet. Only a planet would have the temperatures and gas that all living things seem to need. Until a short time ago, we thought there were only a few planets. Today, scientists believe that many stars have planets going around them.We know that there are nine planets in our own solar system-Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. If any other planets exist in our solar system, or anywhere else, our telescopes are not powerful enough to pick up their feeble reflected light. But astronomers guess that one star in a hundred has at least one planet where life could exist. We are quite sure that life could begin on a young planet. A new plant would be likely to contain great seas, together with heavy clouds of water vapor and other gases. Electric storms would be common. It is possible that simple living cells might from when electricity passed through the clouds. An experiment made in 1952 at the University of Chicago seems to prove this. By passing electricity through nonliving materials, scientist made cells like those of living creatures. Unit8. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the only acceptable roles for women were domestic there was virtually nothing for them to do except stay at home or hire out as maids, governesses, and, before long, teachers. Women were not allowed to own property-in most cases, not even the clothes they wore. A working wife was not allowed to keep her wages but was required to turn them over to her husband. In case of separation or divorce, a woman had no legal claims on her husband and was not allowed to keep the children. She had to legal status, which meant that she was not permitted to bring suit or to give testimony in courts. Often, she was not permitted to inherit property or to make a will. She was barred from public office and excluded form public life generally. For the most part, women lacked opportunities for education, vocational training, and professional employment. The national consensus was that women belong in the home, and determined efforts were made to see that they stayed there. Unit9. Sydneys best feature is her harbor. Most Sydneysiders can see at least a glimpse of blue sea from their windows. Nearly everyone lives within an hour from a beach. On weekends sails of all shapes, sizes and colors glide across the water. Watching the yacht races is a favorite Saturday activity. The harbor divides Sydney into north and south sections. The harbor bridge connects the two. It was built in 1932 and cost 20 million. Another Sydney symbol stands on the harbor shore. Sydneys magnificent opera house celebrated its 20th anniversary last year. Danish designer Jorn Utzon won an international contest with his design. The structure contains several auditoria and theaters. But not all concerts are held in the building. Sunday afternoon concerts on the buildings outer walk attract many listeners. Sydneys trendy suburb is Paddington. Houses are tightly packed together. Many were first built for Victorian artists. Now fashionable shops, restaurants, arts galleries and interesting people fill the area. The best time to visit is Saturday, when vendors sell everything. So there is one of the worlds most attractive cities - Sydney, Austrian. Unit 10 Architectural design influences how privacy is achieved as well as how social contact is made in public places. The concept of privacy is not unique to a particular culture but what it means is culturally determined.People in the United States tend to achieve privacy by physically separating themselves from others. The expression “good fences make good neighbors” is a preference for privacy from neighbors homes. If a family can afford it, each child has his or her own bedroom. When privacy is needed, family members may close their bedroom doors.In some cultures when individuals need privacy, it is acceptable for them simply to look into themselves. That is, they do not need to remove themselves physically from a group in order to achieve privacy.Young American children learn the rule “knock before you enter” which teaches them to respect others privacy. Parents, too, often follow this rule prior to entering their childrens rooms. When a bedroom door is closed it may be a(n) sign to others saying, “I need privacy,” “Im angry,” or “Do not disturb. I busy.” For Americans, the physical division of space and the use of architectural features permit a sense of privacy.The way space is used to help the individual to achieve privacy, to build homes or to design cities if culturally influenced. Dr. Hall summarizes the relationship between individuals and their physical surroundings:Man and his extensions constitute one interrelated system. It is a mistake to act as though man was one thing and his house or his cities, or his language wee something else. Unit11. The Library of Congress is the largest library in the world. Its books, pamphlets, documents, manuscripts, official, papers, photographs, and prints amount to some 86 million items-a number that swells day by day-housed on 535 miles of shelves. Congress authorized a library in 1800, which amounted to three thousand books and a few maps when it was destroyed when the British burned the Capitol in 1814. to replace it, Thomas Jefferson sold the government his own library of almost 6500 volumes-the finest in the nation at the time. The collection, again housed in the Capitol, had grown to 55000 when a fire burned more than half of it. In 1866 a portion of the Smithsonian Institutions library was added to the library of Congress, and in the same year the government entered an international program by which copies of U.S. documents were exchanged for those of other countries. The copyright law of 1870 ensured the library would always be up to date by requiring publishers to send two copies of each book published to the library in order to obtain copyright. By 1870 the collections had outgrown its Capitol quarters. A suggestion to raise the Capitol dome and fill it with bookshelves was rejected, and in 1873 Congress authorized a competition for the design of a library building. A variety of disputes delayed construction for more than a decade, but the librarys Thomas Jefferson Building was finally opened in 1897. Unit12. As a nation, we starting to realize that we cant solve the solid waste dilemma just by finding new places to put trash. Across the country, many individuals, communities and business have found creative ways to reduce and better manage their trash through a coordinated mix of practices that includes source reduction. Simply put source reduction is waste prevention. It includes many actions that reduce the disposal amount and harmfulness of waste created. Source reduction can conserve resources, reduce pollution, and help cut waste disposal and handing costs (it avoids the costs of recycling, landfilling, and combustion). Source reduction is a basic solution to too much garbage: less waste means less of a waste problem. Because source reduction actually prevents the increase of waste in the first place, it comes before other measures that deal with trash after it is already generated. After source reduction, recycling is the preferred waste management option because it reduces the amount of waste going to landfills and conserves resources. Unit13. The first step in helping the patient is to accept and acknowledge his illness. The cause of symptoms must be found, and measures to relieve them and to prevent recurrence must be taken. Thorough examinations are essential. Although the physician may suspect that the illness is due to emotional rather than physical cause, he must search carefully for any evidence of physical disease. It is not unknown for an illness considered psychosomatic to be later diagnosed as cancer or some other disease. The thorough search for physical causes of the symptoms helps to gain the patients confidence. He knows that his condition and symptoms are being taken seriously. If no organic basis for his complaints is found, he usually will find this news easier to accept when he knows he has had a thorough examination. Finding no physical cause for the disorder points the way to understanding the patients condition. What is the cause? Is it emotional stress? If so, what kind? What are the problems which are upsetting the patients? Unit14. The work of French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) has contributed to the theory of evolution. Lamarck believed that the environment shaped the nature/trait/characteristic of plant and animal life. he believed that the bodies of plants and animals changed/had to fit their environment and a useful physical change would be passed on to the plants or animals offspring. For example, Lamarck thought that giraffes developed long necks because they had to stretch to get/eat the leaves of tall trees for food. Lamarck didnt think that giraffes possessed/developed/had long necks all at once, however. He thought that the earliest group of giraffes stretched/lengthened their necks a small amount. Their offspring inherited this longer neck. The offspring then stretched their necks a little bit longer. They passed this even longer neck on to their own offspring. After many generations, giraffes developed the long necks that they have today. Not all of Lamarcks theory is accepted today. Most scientists do not believe that the environment has a(n) effect/influence on the evolution of life forms. Nut they dont agree with the notion/idea that a physical change in a plants or animals body is passed on to the offspring. Instead, they believe that a change must occur in the plants or animals cells before a change in offspring can take place. Unit15. In a very big city, in which millions of people live and work, fast, frequent means of transportation are of the greatest importance. In London, where most people live long distance/away from their work, all officers, factories and schools would have to choose if the buses, the trains and the Underground stopped work. Originally the London Underground had steam trains which were not very different from other English trains, except that they went along in big holes under the ground in order to keep away from the crowded city above their heads. Steam trains used coal, which filled the underground stations with terrible smoke. As a result, the old trains were taken away, and electric ones put in their place. Now the London Underground is very clean, and the electric trains make faster runs possible. At every Underground station/stop there are maps of all the Underground lines in London, so that it is easy to see how to get wherever one wants to go. Each station has its name written up clearly and in large letters several times, so that one can see when one comes to where one must get out. At some stations one can change to a different underground train, and in some places, such as Piccadilly, there are actually three lines crossing each other. The trains on the three lines are not on the same level, so that there should not be accidents. To change trains, one has to go up or down some stairs to a new level. It would be tiring to have to walk up these stairs/steps, so the stairs are made to mov
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