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作业一思考题 请比较分析以迪尔凯姆为代表的实证主义社会学和以韦伯为代表的人本主义社会学在思想来源、研究对象、方法原则等方面有何区别与联系？（形成书面作业，字数不少于400字） 作业二阶段性测验（第1至10章） 一、单项选择题（每小题2分，10小题，共20分。每小题备选答案中有一项正确答案，请将正确答案的序号填在括号内） 1自1838年（D）提出社会学概念至今，仅仅170多年的历史，社会学获得了迅速发展。A韦伯B斯宾塞C迪尔凯姆D孔德2孔德将（B）作为社会学的两大研究主题。A公平与正义B秩序与进步C效率与公平D个人与社会3斯宾塞认为，根据社会管理调控方式进行划分，社会进化类型是：（D）工业社会。A游牧社会B农业社会C封建社会D军事社会4迪尔凯姆提出社会学的研究对象是（C）。A社会现象B社会规律C社会事实D社会组织5齐美尔提出要建立关于社会形式的社会（B）。A物理学B几何学C心理学D动力学6韦伯认为社会学的研究对象是（D）。A社会事实B社会形式C社会规律D社会行动7帕累托指出，大量的社会行为或社会事件都是（A）的。A非逻辑B合逻辑C合理性D合规律性8帕森斯认为，动机取向的社会行动是行动者以（D）为争取目标的主观要求。A价值理想B社会进步C道德要求D直接利益9默顿认为，某种最初有益于社会行动或社会结构的功能，在后来演化过程中变成了有害于这种社会行动或社会结构的功能，这种功能称之为（B ）。A隐功能B功能失调C反功能D显功能10米德提出有意义的意识过程都是在人际沟通或社会交往中展开的，它的最简单、最基本的形式是（ C）。A情感沟通B语言交流C姿势对话D意义表达二、填空题（每空1分，共15分） 1孔德认为社会发展先后经历了神学阶段、形而上学阶段、实证阶段三个不同的阶段。2齐美尔根据服从于多数人、服从于组织、服从于思想原则这三个标准对统治与服从的关系进行了划分。3迪尔凯姆论述了利己性自杀、利他性自杀、失范性自杀等三种自杀类型。4韦伯指出，理解社会行动的基本形式是投入、体验和设身处地。5米德指出，游戏阶段是嬉戏阶段的发展，它的基本特点是复杂性、组织性、规则性和预期性 。三、名词解释（每小题5分，4小题，共20分） 1实证阶段（孔德）孔德认为，实证阶段是超越了神学和形而上学虚幻性和绝对性的阶段，是以实证科学为知识基础，直接面向经验事实的阶段。2社会比率（迪尔凯姆）社会比率是由个人行为或个别事实相互联系而构成的统计比例或计量关系，如出生率、死亡率、失业率等。3有机团结（迪尔凯姆）有机团结是在现代工业社会中形成的社会团结，它以社会高度分化、社会成员充分分工为基础。在有机团结中，维系社会成员的纽带是因为社会分工和社会专业化而造成的他们不可超越的相互依赖关系。4社会唯名论韦伯的立场被称为“社会唯名论”，其实质是认为那些诸如阶层、阶级、组织和社会比率等概念并不是实际存在，而是表达人们思想观念的名词，真正实在的是受主观意愿支配而真实行动着的人。四、简答题（每题10分，2道题，共20分）1帕森斯AGIL框架中的适应、目标达到、整合与维模（即潜在的模式维持）的具体含义是什么？ 答：A 适应(Adaptation)，即社会系统对环境的适应功能。包括对环境给系统的限制和压力的顺应，以及对环境的积极改造。 G目标达到(Goal-attainment)，即社会系统确立总目标的功能。社会系统确立了总目标，可以把社会成员的社会活动集中指向某种目的。目标达到功能表现为一种过程，包括确立目标和组织社会成员为实现这一目标而付诸实践。 I整合(Integration)，即协调社会系统各组成部分，使它们达到某种程度的团结而开展有效的合作。整合功能是通过适当情感联系实现的 。L潜在的模式维持(Latency pattern maintenance)，即根据某些规范与原则，维持系统行动秩序与活动方式连续性的功能。社会系统不会因为运行的间歇性而中断，它将通过一系列规范和原则使自己的运行模式潜存下来，一旦社会成员进入这些规范和原则作用的范围内，系统又重新运行起来。2韦伯将社会行动划分为哪四种理想类型，其划分的依据及每一种社会行动的特点是什么？韦伯将社会行动划分为：（1）情感类型：其特点是人们开展社会行动时，把喜、怒、哀、乐等情感和情绪作为自己行动的主要依据。（2）价值理性类型：其特点是目的是给定的，行动者不能根据自己的利益需求主动地衡量和挑选何种行动目标。（3）传统类型：其特点是既不算功利，也不追求超功利的理想，它所坚持的是习惯的继续和历史的沿袭。（4）工具理性类型：其特点是具有功利目的性、手段选择性、操作策化性、效果检测性等特点。这四种行动类型划分的依据是人们开展社会活动的根据不同作出的划分；它们都在一定普遍性程度概括了某些社会成员的行动方式，亦即不是少数个别人的个别主观性。五、论述题（25分） 1默顿是如何批判宏观结构功能主义的？ 作业三课堂讨论 请讨论布迪厄所论述的社会资本有哪些特点？举例说明社会资本的开发和积累对于个人、组织和国家的发展有哪些好处？又会产生哪些问题？（每位同学于课堂讨论之后，提交一份发言总结，字数不少于400字） 答：根据布迪厄的说明，可以看出社会资本有如下的特点：首先，社会资本是一种从中可以吸取某种资源的、持续性的社会网络关系。其次，社会资本是一种体制化的网络关系，而不是那些靠亲属关系和血缘关系建立起来的自然联系，是在特的工作关系、群体关系和组织关系中存在的，它要通过某种制度性的关系来加强，否则就是变动不居的偶然联系，而不是作为具有稳定联系的社会网络。再次，社会资本具有潜在性和现实性。只有当社会网络被行动者调动或利用时，它才能以某种能量或资源发挥资本在实践中的作用，这时它就是现实的社会资本；而当它未被调动和利用时，它仅仅是静态的网络关系，是潜在的社会资本，可见，社会资本是动态的实践性概念。最后，社会资本作为一种网络资源，每一个被联系在其中的社会成员都可以从中受益，但受益的程度要依每个人实践能力的大小而有所区别。社会资本的开发和积累对于个人发展的好处和产生问题：例如社会资本对大学生就业的影响。1.社会资本对大学生就业具有积极的作用，但过度追求和使用社会资本会给当事人及社会带来极为不利的影响。社会资本与人力资本相互作用，对大学生就业过程产生协同效应。社会资本对大学生就业的积极影响主要体现在：（1）社会资本可以帮助收集、筛选信息, 可以弥补大学毕业生就业信息的不对称。2）社会资本可以帮助推荐就业。（3）社会资本有助于降低就业成本。（4）有助于大学生实现自主创业。2.社会资本在大学生就业中产生的消极影响：1）滋长了“权力和关系崇拜”。（2）滋长了严重的依赖思想。（3）极大地破坏了业已形成的“双向选择、自主择业”的公平竞争的就业机制。（4）消解大学生去西部、下基层的热情，加剧大学生就业难现状。对于组织和国家的发展：随着资本积累的进行，一方面扩大了生产规模，增加了社会财富；另一方面在生产出资本主义生产关系。第一，资本积累对促进生产力的发展有重要作用。资本积累是扩大再生产的源泉，是扩大再生产的物质保证；为科学技术的迅猛发展提供了物质技术条件；推动了资本和生产的集中，对于提高资本主义经济的社会化程度是非常有力的，从而为资本和生产的国家化发展提供了保障。第二，资本积累对促进整个社会的物质文明和社会进步具有重要作用。随着资本积累不断扩大，资本主义生产得到了迅速发展，社会财富日益增加，从而为社会各个部门的发展提供物质和资金保证，特别是为了公共设施建设、科学教育和文化卫生事业、社会福利等方面的建设提供了丰富的物资和资金保障。因此，从某种意义上说，资本积累对于提高整个社会的物质文明和社会进步具有一定的积极作用。产生的问题：资本积累一方面促进了社会生产力的发展，另一方面不断生产出日益扩大的资本家阶级。 社会财富日益积累在少数人手中，这是资本主义积累的特点之一。资本积累在带给资本家阶层日益富裕的同时，却给无产阶级带来了日益的贫困。作业四阶段性测验（第11至20章）一、单项选择题（每小题2分，10小题，共20分。每小题备选答案中有一项正确答案，请将正确答案的序号填在括号内） 1霍曼斯认为，（D）指人们在社会交换行为中为获得某种利益，或为实现某种目的而预先做出的支付。A帮助B关爱C友谊D成本2布劳指出，一个人要想在社会中获得权力，最有效的途径就是向别人（B）。A显示能力B提供帮助C开展竞争D学习优点3柯林斯展开冲突理论从微观迈向宏观研究所使用的核心观念是（C）。A社会矛盾B阶级冲突C互动仪式链D利益关系4常人方法学超越了（B）的对立。A唯物与唯心B主观与客观C个人与社会D传统与现代5丹尼尔贝尔认为，知识阶级成为后工业社会的主导力量，一个重要根据是（B）上升到首要地位。A生产技术B理论知识C发明创造D文学艺术6福柯主张，知识考古学要在实证性的话语实践中揭示出具有（C）的规则。A普遍性B规律性C差别性D相似性7 布迪厄指出，人们在日常生活中的大量行为是由（D）支配的。A理性思维B风俗习惯C宗教观念D实践感8马尔库塞提出，本能革命的目的在于建设无压抑性文明，而无压抑性文明的根本点在于（D）的解放。A思想B 人性C理性D爱欲9哈贝马斯认为，目的理性行动中的规范结构展开于主观与客观之间，亦即展开于（B）之间。A人与社会B人与物C人与群体D人与人10吉登斯认为，社会系统中的结构是由人们头脑中的（D）亦即结构观念指导人们的实践行动创造出来的。A理论观念B传统观念C价值理想D记忆痕迹二、填空题（每空1分，共15分） 1霍曼斯用成本与报酬关系来解释社会交换权力形成的两个原则是利益最小原则和稀有资源原则。2贝尔认为，后工业社会来临的主要标志有：从产品经济转变为服务经济，人员处于主导地位，上升到首要地位。3布迪厄论述了经济资本、文化资本、社会资本这三种资本形态及其相互关系。4哈贝马斯认为，实现语言的有效沟通应当满足以下四个条件，即表达的可领会性陈述的真实性、表达的真诚性、言说的正当性。5吉登斯认为，传递性经验是通过知识信息和通讯媒体而形成的间接性经验。三、名词解释（每小题5分，4小题，共20分） 1利益最小原则（霍曼斯）霍曼斯用成本与报酬的关系来解释社会交换权力的形成。他认为，在社会交换行为中，如果一个人在交换中付出的成本大于对方，而获得的报酬却小于对方，那么他在交换中将获得支配对方和控制交换行为的权力。霍曼斯称之为“利益最小原则”。2内部报酬（布劳）内部报酬是从社会交换关系本身获得的报酬，内部报酬从内部交换获得；内部交换是带有非功利色彩的情感方面的交换，例如友谊、恋爱就属于内部交换；由内部交换而得到的内部报酬具有非功利的情感性质。3场域（布迪厄）场域是以各种社会关系联结起来的表现形式多样的社会场合或社会领域，场域中有社会行动者、团体机构、制度和规则等因素存在，场域的本质是这些构成要素之间的社会关系或社会网络。4实践意识（吉登斯）实践意识是有能力支配行为的感性意识；是介于无意识和话语意识之间的“只做不说的意识”；实践意识具有日常性和惯例性。四、简答题（每题10分，2道题，共20分） 1丹尼尔贝尔论述的中轴原理的方法论意义是什么？中轴原理具有突出的问题意识，中轴原理提出了社会学研究的针对性和功效性。中轴原理不追求稳定不变的普遍性原则，而是在动态变化中不断概括和回答各种新问题。不同的社会层面中有不同的中心因素或中轴原理，因此，不能用同一种因素作为解释各种社会层面存在、变化和发展的根据。用这种“旋转着的中轴”研究社会问题，可以避免用同一种因素作为解释各种社会层面存在、变化和发展根据的机械决定论。2福柯是如何论述权利和知识的关系的？福柯主要从以下三个方面论述权力和知识的关系：其一，知识是在权力的制约中形成与发展起来的，没有脱离权力关系的抽象知识； 其二，权力离不开知识，不仅权力在特定的知识背景和知识结构中形成，而且知识本身就是权力； 其三，权力同知识不可分，只有在权力与知识的联系中才能把握权力的实质与作用。五、论述题（25分） 1哈贝马斯如何论述目的理性行动和交往行动之间的关系？其实践意义是什么？哈贝马斯把社会行动区分为两大类：目的理性行动和交往行动，并指出两类行动具有不同的规范结构。目的理性行动中的规范结构展开于主观与客观之间，亦即展开于人与物之间，而交往行动中的规范结构则展开于主观之间，亦即展开于人与人之间。目的理性行动把功利目标、手段选择、技术操作、价值测评和决策筹划等因素考虑周全，并使这些因素在目的理性行动中协调一致，这就是目的理性的规范结构。交往行动的规范结构要求人们在交往中按照真、诚、正、通四条原则行事（或根据交往理性行事），这也就是哈贝马斯追求的交往行动理性化。哈贝马斯观点的实践意义在于，在现实生活中，要把生产活动、科学实验等面对客观事物的行动同面对人的交往活动区分开，不能用对待物的原则或行为方式去对待人。请您删除一下内容，O(_)O谢谢！2016年中央电大期末复习考试小抄大全，电大期末考试必备小抄，电大考试必过小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon activation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. For a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the development of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, and surrealism, became more personally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the expressive violence and activity in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Science and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the Greeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station, man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slopemof a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its direction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation ofalgebraic geometry. circle, closed plane curve consisting of all points at a given distance from some fixed point, called the center. A circle is a conic section cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone. The term circle is also used to refer to the region enclosed by the curve, more properly called a circular region. The radius of a circle is any line segment connecting the center and a point on the curve; the term is also used for the length r of this segment, i.e., the common distance of all points on the curve from the center. Similarly, the circumference of a circle is either the curve itself or its length of arc. A line segment whose two ends lie on the circumference is a chord; a chord through the center is the diameter. A secant is a line of indefinite length intersecting the circle at two points, the segment of it within the circle being a chord. A tangent to a circle is a straight line touching the circle at only one point, the point of contact, or tangency, and is always perpendicular to the radius drawn to this point. A circle is inscribed in a polygon if each side of the polygon is tangent to the circle; a circle is circumscribed about a polygon if all the vertices of the polygon lie on the circumference. The length of the circumference C of a circle is equal to (see pi) times twice the radius distance r, or C=2r. The area A bounded by a circle is given by A=r2. Greek geometry left many unsolved problems about circles, including the problem of squaring the circle, i.e., constructing a square with an area equal to that of a given circle, using only a straight edge and compass; it was finally proved impossible in the late 19th cent. (see geometric problems of antiquity). In modern mathematics the circle is the basis for such theories as inversive geometry and certain non-Euclidean geometries. The circle figures significantly in many cultures. In religion and art it
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