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电大外国文学专题作业答案作业1一、 填空题1、 在30年代欧洲文坛向左转的时期，英国出现了一批左翼进步作家，其中最重要的是剧作家旭恩.奥凯西和小说家威斯坦.休.奥登。2、 “愤怒的青年”得名于约翰.奥斯本的剧本愤怒的回顾。3、 多丽丝.莱辛是一位杰出的女作家，她于60年代创作的长篇小说是金色笔记。4、 罗曼.罗兰的代表作是长篇小说约翰.克利斯朵夫。5、 安德烈.马尔罗是作家又是政治活动家，曾多次来到中国。他著有两部描写中国工人罢工和起义的作品：制服者和人的状况。6、 雷马克最著名的作品是西线无战事。小说以客观的状态、生动细腻的笔法描写战争的残酷场景，写年青的士兵的经历和感受，因而具有震撼人心的力量。7、 美国小说家德莱塞的主要作品有嘉莉妹妹、珍妮姑娘、“欲望三部曲”和美国的悲哀。8、 “迷惘的一代”的代表之一是菲兹杰拉德，他的代表作是小说了不起的盖茨比。9、 女作家玛格丽特.米切尔的代表作是飘，作品写美国南北战争时期的历史。10、 20世纪美国在戏剧方面的主要成就除奥尼尔的作品外，还有阿瑟.米勒的推销员之死和威廉斯的欲望号街车等名剧。11、 萧伯纳在巴巴拉少校中塑造了一个大军火商的形象，他名叫安德谢夫。12、 赫索格的作者是索尔.贝娄。13、 契科夫主要的戏剧作品有三姐妹和樱桃园等。14、 肖洛霍夫的代表作是长篇小说静静的顿河。二、 简答题1、20世纪欧美现实主义文学有哪些基本特征？p11-142、托马斯.曼的现实主义和传统现实主义有哪些不同？p353、布莱希特“叙事剧”理论的主要内容是什么？“叙事剧”在艺术上有什么特点？p39-404、什么是“社会主义现实主义”？p61作业2一、 填空题1、鬼魂奏鸣曲是表现主义戏剧的经典作品，它的作者是斯特林堡。2、德国的表现主义戏剧作品主要有格奥尔格.凯泽的从清晨到午夜；弗朗.魏德金德的春情萌动；恩斯特.托勒的转变等。3、卡夫卡的主要作品有变形记、审判、城堡等。4、天边外是奠定奥尼尔（填作家名）美国重要戏剧家地位的作品。剧本写两个乡下青年故事。5、“意识流”最初是心理学术语，由美国心理学家威廉.詹姆斯在1884年发表的论内省心理学所忽略的几个问题一文中首先使用。法国哲学家亨利.柏格森从哲学的角度提出了意识的“绵延说”、“直觉主义”和“心理时间观”。奥地利心理学家弗洛伊德的精神分析学说的核心和支柱是无意性和性本能的理论。6、乔伊斯的主要小说作品有小说集都柏林人（1914）、青年艺术家的肖像（1933）、写作时间持续16年之久的为菲尼根守灵。他的代表作是长篇小说尤利西斯。7、到灯塔去的作者是吴尔夫。8、“约克纳帕塔法”是美国作家福克纳虚构的一个小说世界。其中最著名的长篇小说是喧哗与骚动。这部小说也是意识流小说的代表作品。二、简答题1、表现主义文学有哪些基本特征？p912、城堡的多解性是如何表现的？p1003、荒原的现代性表现在哪些方面？p1254、什么是意识流小说中的“内心独白”？p133作业3一、 填空题1、 存在主义思想出现在19世纪中期。早期的存在主义代表人物是丹麦人克尔凯郭尔。第一次世界大战后，德国的海德格尔和雅斯贝尔将存在主义发展为一种独特的哲学体系，并命名为存在主义。第二次世界大战后，存在主义的代表人物是法国的萨特。2、 加缪最 主要小说是鼠役，（长篇）和局外人（中篇小说）。3、 女作家西蒙.德.波伏瓦的第二性是一部影响巨大的社会问题著作。其中的著名论断是“女人不是天生的，而是造成的”。4、 19世纪、20世纪之交，俄国出现了一个现代主义文学（主要是诗歌）的繁华时期。俄国文学史上称其为白银时代。5、 未来主义最初出现在意大利，带有无政府主义色彩，传入俄国后，出现了许多派别，这些派别的基本倾向大致相似。其中有代表性的如马雅可夫斯基的穿裤子的云。6、 阿克梅主义的影响延及整个20世纪，当时俄国的一些重要诗人，如古米廖夫、c.戈罗杰茨基、阿赫玛托娃、曼德尔施塔姆等都是阿克梅主义的骨干。阿赫玛托娃的诗集黄昏集和念珠的问世，曾引起当时文坛的轰动。曼德尔施塔姆的第一本诗集已显现一个大诗人的气质。7、 安德烈.普拉东诺夫的主要作品有中篇小说地槽（1930，1987年发表）等。8、 1924年到1925年布尔加可夫发表了魔障、不祥之蛋、狗心三个中篇小说，这些作品是作家吧辛辣的讽刺笔触、幻想性的怪诞手法和敏锐观察到的莫斯科生活细节融为一体的成功尝试。布尔加可夫的代表作是哲理长篇小说大师和玛格丽特。二、简答题1、后期象征主义有哪些基本特征？p1152、存在主义文学有哪些基本特征？p1663、西西福斯的神话表达了加缪怎样的哲学思想，这些思想如何体现在他的小说中？p1754、简述厌恶的思想内容。P174作业4一、填空题1、1950年5月1日，法国剧作家欧仁.尤奈斯库的一出名为秃头歌女的戏在巴黎“夜游者剧院”首演，标志着一个全新的戏剧流派荒诞派戏剧的诞生。尤奈斯库重要的作品还有椅子、犀牛等。2、荒诞派戏剧的代表作家主要有：贝克特、尤奈斯库、阿达莫夫、热内、品特、阿尔比等。3、贝克特的戏剧代表作是等等戈多。4、新小说的代表作家作品主要有：萨洛特的向性；罗伯-格里耶的橡皮、嫉妒；克洛德.西蒙的（代表作）弗兰德公路；布托尔的变、度等。5、黑色幽默主要的代表作家作品有冯尼格特的五号屠场、唐纳德.巴塞尔姆的白雪公主、品钦的万有引力之虹、海勒的第二十二条军规。6、玉米人的作者是阿斯图里亚斯。7、马尔可斯的代表作是百年孤独。二、简答题1、等待戈多如何体现荒诞派戏剧的特征？p2162、新小说有哪些主要理论？p2193、什么是“黑色幽默”？p2304、拉美魔幻现实主义有哪些基本特征？p253外国文学专题作业评讲(1)二、简答题 Ckp0mz 1、20世纪欧美现实主义文学有哪些基本特征？ %h v-3L#V (1)视域和主题的变化。20世纪，许多新的问题摆在作家的，譬如劳资矛盾已经成为社会的主要，生活的发展与人的异化之间的对立越来越严重，物质财富的增长与人让的焦虑、困惑、空虚、幻灭形成强烈的反差，两次世纪大战带来的心灵创伤和人们对于传统的理念和价值观的怀疑等等。(2)创作理念的变化。20世纪是不稳定的、是浮动的，于是出现了反映这种现实的新创作理念，最突出的就是作品的“向内转”倾向，更关心“心理现实”。(3)方法与形式的变化。诸如变形、荒诞、梦幻、象征、意识流、内心独白、时空颠倒、淡化情节、淡化典型人物的塑造等。 OOYdrv, 2、托马斯曼的现实主义和传统现实主义有哪些不同？ Af xE 象征的人物形象；隐喻性的细节描写；意识流的表现手法；小说的非情节化；此外他还运用心理分析、含蓄的讽刺，甚至带有荒诞色彩的细节把现实与梦境、真实与幻觉、记忆与印象交织在一起。 2- R 3、布莱希特“叙事剧”理论的主要内容是什么？“叙事剧”在艺术上有什么特点？ LtNspFoLb 在布莱希特看来诉戏剧强调戏剧冲突，强调戏剧性，这是一种建立在亚里士多德关于命运悲剧理论基础上的戏剧。也就是说通过模仿引起恐惧和怜悯的使观众的思想产生恐惧和怜悯，从而在道德上得到净化。而布莱希特倡导的叙事剧，却是要让观众产生思考的兴趣，激发观众变革现实的愿望，并使观众相信世纪是可变的，从而培养观众积极的处世态度。 #*Gv%Ow/u 叙事剧在艺术上的特点，包括“陌生化”的手法，使观众用新的眼光观察和理解司空见惯的事物。导演和演员借此有意识地在舞台与观众之间制造一种感情上的距离，使演员既是角色的扮演者，又是角色的裁判，使观众成为清醒的旁观者，用探讨和批判的态度对待舞台上的事件。 Ex;&UWm 4、什么是“社会主义现实主义”？ 6lwWFR+k 1934年召开的第一次全苏作家代表大会，规定了“社会主义现实主义”是(前)苏联文学批评的基本方法。大会通过的(前)苏联作家协会章程里，关于“社会主义现实主义”作了如下的表述：“社会主义现实主义，作为(前)苏联文学与(前)苏联文学批评的基本方法，要求艺术家从现实的革命发展中真实地历史具体地去描写现实；同时，艺术描写的真实性和历史具体性必须与用社会主义精神从思想上改造和教育劳动人民的任务结合起来。” 4 rD&Lg 三、论述。 _F jax 分析静静的顿河的主人公格利高里麦列霍夫的形象。 kbld#E 葛利高里出身于一个中等小康的农民家里，他乐观、意志刚强，充满青春活力，热爱劳动，富有同情心，他性格的另一面是倔强和富的反抗精神，在他对爱情的态度上看出他维护个性独立的精神。他落后的一面，表现在受了哥萨克传统偏见和落后意识的影响，比如强烈的愚忠思想，在第一次世界大战、十月革命中都有所体现。葛利高里悲剧的根源在于：作为有着独特个性气质的人物，他对个人幸福和社会理想的追求与当时俄国历史发展的趋势发生了矛盾，他的追求变成对历史总趋势的对抗。外国文学专题作业评讲(2)1、表现主义文学有哪些特征？ (1)类型化的人物形象；(2)如梦似幻的情节；(3)表现内在的激情；(4)强烈的反差对比；(5)使用突破常规的表现手段。2、城堡的多解性是如何表现的？城堡的各种解读融为一体，并无主次之分。城堡是神的恩典的象征，是神驾驭人的命运的象征。城堡是权力的象征、国家统治机器的缩影。城堡是犹太人无家可归的写照。城堡是荒诞世界的象征。城堡是卡夫卡父亲的象征。3、荒原的现代性表现在哪些方面？为了表现荒芜、病态和邪恶的主旨，荒原彻底摒弃了浪漫主义诗歌以健康、美好、高雅的入诗的传统，而延续了象征主义诗歌，特别是恶之花选用病态、丑恶、卑微意向的理念。荒原具有思维上跳跃幅度大的特点。场面之间、意象之间的衔接常常显得十分突兀，这种大幅度的跳跃并非个别现象，而是贯穿整个诗篇的一个基本特征。荒原用典之多，在20世纪欧美文学作品中是相当少见的。荒原具有明显的音乐结构、仿佛一首宏大复杂的诗。荒原采用了典型的自由体，诗句长短不一，不用规律的韵，但节奏分明，舒展自如，收放有致。荒原既有历史的透视，又有现实的观照。4、什么是意识流小说中的“内心独白”？内心独白是表现人物心理和意识的常用手法，它是“默默无声，一人独操的心理语言，或者说是无声无息的语言意识。”内心独白又可分间接内心独白与直接内心独白。间接内心独白是在小说叙述者的叙述中插入人物的内心活动，通常有“他想”、“他感到”等类似的揭示语作引导。直接内心独白是没有任何揭示语的小说人物意识的直接呈现，是叙述语言和人物意识的直接转换。直接内心独白在意识流小说中最为常见，它能够造成人物内心无保留地直接初露给读者的真切效果，又由于没有作者的介入而最接近人物意识的原生状态。三、论述。尤利西斯表达了怎样的思想内容？作者以“尤利西斯”（希腊古代神话中的英雄奥德修斯的罗马化名）作为书名，而且把这一天内自己小说人物的活动和希腊史诗奥德修纪中的人物加以对应，还完全搬用了奥德修纪各章的名字，作者的目的似乎就是通过古往今来的对照看一看今日的世界和今天的人，从而引起人们的一些思考。小说中的几个主要人物都是普普通通的人。他们有缺点，却也不乏好的品质。但时代和社会，总之，是现代的西方文化（物质的和精神的），把他们造就成今天的这个样子。布卢姆意志薄弱、苟且偷安、庸俗猥琐；斯蒂芬精神空虚自甘堕落，生命力的下降，上进心的缺失；他俩的这肯性格特征不是偶然显现的一种特殊品质，而是司空见惯的日常现象。朝气蓬勃、精神高昂、奋勇向上的时代精神日已成为过去。外国文学专题作业评讲(3)二、简答题1、后期象征主义有哪些特征？一是更强调诗歌的复杂性、暗示性、神秘性和音乐，强调通过象征实现灵魂与灵魂的对话，实现已知世界与未知世界的对话；二是创作变得愈来愈隐秘与个人化，诗人仿佛神庙中祈祷的神甫，试图在喃喃自语是创造某种奥秘的迷；三是更加强调形式的“纯粹”，试图创造一种“纯诗”。在后期象征主义诗人看来，诗作为一种最高的艺术创造形式，完全超越了自然，是使人类超脱自然死亡唯一的精神途径。2、存在主义文学有哪些基本特征？首先，法国存在主义作家都关心现实问题，因此他们的作品都与现实紧密相关。第二，法国存在主义作家差不多都是哲学学生出生，而他们在哲学思想上的共同理念就是存在主义。第三，从形式方面看，存在主义作家基本上是遵循传统的，但在一定程度上有所创新。3、西西福斯的神话表达了加缪怎样的哲学思想，这些思想如何体现在他的小说中？西西福斯的神话是加缪重要的存在主义哲学著作。西西福斯是希腊神话中的一个暴君，遭到神的惩罚：在冥土推巨石上山，但将及山顶时，巨石滚下，他再重新推石，如此周而复始，永无止境，加缪借这个故事来阐明自己的哲学观点。人的存在就如同西西福斯的生存状态一样荒诞和徒劳无益。西西福斯对自己的处境有着清醒的认识，也为此感到烦恼，然而他仍不断地把巨石推向山顶，因为“爬上山顶所要作出的艰苦努力就足以使一个人的心里感到充实”，因而他又是幸福的。加缪甩的是这个神话英雄的“清醒意识”，这种“清醒意识”既给西西福斯带来痛苦，又造就了分的胜利，因为他的清醒韵味着对痛苦和命运的藐视，加缪的报有作品几乎都是这种哲学观点的形象化阐释。4、简述厌恶的思想内容？厌恶作为萨特的第一部存在主义小说，也是法国第一部有影响的存在主义小说，明显地在传统小说的故事叙述中融入许多关于“存在”的思考，这是它突出的存在主义特色。如小说主人公洛根丁感觉到“厌恶”并最终发现其根源在于“偶然性”，就是说，从定义上说，存在不是必然。一切都是完全没有根据的。洛根丁的体验和感觉其实是萨特后来在存在与虚无和苍蝇等作品里表现的思想：生活是荒谬的，没有什么固定的意义；生活的荒谬会使人厌恶。这也是萨特提出的“存在先于本质”的基本含义。三、论述。大师和玛格丽特提出了哪些主要问题？这些问题的提出表现了作品怎样的思想内容？首先，魔王沃兰德为什么来到人间？实际上，沃兰德在和莫斯科的杂技观众网页时，就开诚布公地讲明了此行的目的，那就是要透过城市外貌改变，看一看“本市居民的内心是否发生了变化？”也就是说，他此行只不过是要莫斯科居民的生活来一次揭露性实验，他揭示出人们通常体面的那个貌似坚强的精神支柱，竟是这样脆弱？于是小说提出另一个问题：莫斯科的精神文化的理论权威、莫斯科文联主席柏辽兹为什么应该受那么严厉的惩罚？其实，沃兰德惊怒柏辽兹“不论提起什么，一切没有”的历史和文化虚无主义态度，“从死变灰、一切化为乌有”的没有道德责任感、没有精神皈依的庸俗唯理论势必泯灭掉人的责任感和道德感，造成的是一个没有个性、没有思想、没有精神支柱的行尸走肉的世界。小说出现了一个新的耶稣形象，那么这一精神支柱如何才能在人的心中树立起来？为什么说怯懦是人类最可怕的缺陷？此外，小说还提出为什么永生不死是恐怖的？大师为什么只配得到“安宁”等等。外国文学专题作业评讲(4)1、等待戈多如何体现荒诞派戏剧的特征？传统戏剧要求一出戏要有强烈的戏剧冲突，情节要有发生、发展、高潮和结局，戏剧语言要富有动作性，能推动剧情向前发展。但荒诞派戏剧却拒绝遵守上述原则，等待戈多充分表现了这一流派在形式上的特点。全剧没的戏剧冲突，也谈不上情节，只是无聊的闲谈。等待戈多因情节结构的这一特点又被称为“静止剧”，这恰恰表现了作品的内容：生活如一潭死水，单调乏味，机械重复，毫无希望。2、新小说有哪些主要理论？首先，反对过分强调小说的思想性、社会性、倾向性。其次，强调探索新的小说表达方式。如，新小说的主人公是一个无名的“我”，他是一切，又什么都不是。3、什么是“黑色幽默”？ “黑色幽默”是兴起于20世纪60年代的美国，盛行于70年代的一个文学流派。黑色幽默是人们感到自己生存在一个令人绝望的、不可理喻的环境之中，作家对现实社会怀着既沉痛、愤懑又无可奈何的绝望心情。不过，他们的愤懑并没有发展为反抗，而是采取玩世不恭的态度，耸耸肩膀，一笑置之。1961年，约瑟夫海勒的第二十二条军规开创了“黑色幽默”的先河，为美国文学当时的发展闯出一条新路。4、拉美魔幻现实主义有哪些基本特征？魔幻现实主义的基本特征就是借魔幻表现现实。魔幻现实主义文学的魔幻并不是虚幻，而是以现实为基础，执着于描写拉丁美洲的现实；作家往往负有为现实斗争服务的使命感；作品的基本题材来自现实，其内容富有社会意义。同时它不追求如实地描写现实，作品的题材和内容被魔幻化。三、论述。分析百年孤独的思想内容。百年孤独的标题非常简练地概括了书中的内容：“百年”指作品中所写的时间跨度，即马孔多的历史；“孤独”指马孔多人的性格，即他们的封闭与落后。作家虚拟的马孔多是哥伦比亚的乃至全拉丁美洲的缩影。书中从它的建立、发展，一直写到它消亡的百年间的历史，处处暗示着哥伦比亚乃至拉丁美洲历史的影子。“孤独”，马孔多地处偏僻，四周是一望无际的沼泽，再向外便是大海，它孤独，同时生活在这里的人孤陋寡闻，对外部世界一无所知。作家认为他们生活悲剧的原因，即精神上的“孤独”，他们缺乏受惊，意志薄弱，缺乏理想，缺乏动力，于是遇到挫折便离群索居，失去进取精神。请您删除一下内容，O(_)O谢谢！2016年中央电大期末复习考试小抄大全，电大期末考试必备小抄，电大考试必过小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon activation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. For a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the development of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, and surrealism, became more personally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the expressive violence and activity in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Science and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the Greeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station, man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slopemof a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its direction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation ofalgebraic geometry. circle, closed plane curve consisting of all points at a given distance from some fixed point, called the center. A circle is a conic section cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone. The term circle is also used to refer to the region enclosed by the curve, more properly called a circular region. The radius of a circle is any line segment connecting the center and a point on the curve; the term is also used for the length r of this segment, i.e.,
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