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Lecture6ExpositionandArgumentation,ConceptandBasicStructure,CommonlyUsedSentencePatterns,ExpositioninCET6,ExpositioninCET6,08年12月HowtoimproveStudentsMentalHealth1.大学生心理健康很重要2.为此，学校可以3.我们自己应该07年12月TheDigitalAge1.如今数字化产品越来越多，如2.使用数字化产品对人们学习工作和生活的影响05年6月OnPiracy1.目前盗版现象比较严重2.造成这种现象的原因及危害3.我们应该怎样做03.12月ReduceWasteonCampus1.目前有些校园内浪费现象严重2.浪费的危害3.从我做起，杜绝浪费2003.1ItPaystoBeHonest1.最近社会上出现了一些不诚实的现象。2诚实利人利己；怎样做到诚实。2002.6StudentUseofComputers1.下图所是为1990、1995、2000年某高校大学生使用计算机的情况，请描述其变化；2.请说明发生这些变化的原因；3.你认为目前大学生在计算机使用中有什么困难或问题。1998.1MyViewonFakeCommodities1.假冒伪劣商品的危害2.怎样杜绝假冒伪劣商品,ConceptandBasicStructure,说明文的概念说明文是用来解释、阐述事物的文章。说明的对象可以是某一客观事物的特点、性质、操作程序、工作原理等，也可以是某种抽象概念或科学原理、自然现象或社会现象。有时甚至是某种观点。因此，说明文是学生科学家或其他专业人员经常使用的文体。由于说明文往往是对客观事物或事理的介绍或解释，一般是不随时间和空间变化而改变的。因此，英语说明文的基本时态还是一般现在时。,说明文的特点客观性：说明的目的是介绍事物、阐明事理，所以，作者的态度必须冷静、客观、尽可能不含自己的主观感情色彩。说明文通常没有个人的评论，因此常常采用被动语态。信息性：所有说明的内容不仅要给读者提供足够的信息还必须客观真实。解说性:说明文要求对事物的性质、形状、特征等进行直接解说，因而写作要深入浅出、条理分明、通畅易懂。,说明文的标题说明文通常用来解释“某一概念”、“和的关系”、“什么是”、“如何解决的问题”或“如何做”、“为什么”或“的原因”等。所以，常用以下几种形式的标题：1）名词或名词短语：这种标题中的名词或名词短语就是要说明的对象。例如：TheTwo-dayWeekend,Plastics,BicycleAnImportantMeansofTransportationinChina,AdvantageofJobInterview等。2）并列结构：这类标题通常用and连接两个名词，文章的核心部分常常是两个概念的比较、相互关系或相互影响。例如：TheComputerandOurLife,TheBusandtheSubwayTrain,MotorcyclesandCityTraffic等。3）非谓语动词：这类标题的说明文主要侧重如何做某事。例如：HowtoSucceedinaJobInterview,GettingtoKnowtheWorldOutsidetheCampus等。4）句子：用作说明文标题的句子可以是疑问句也可以是陈述句，有时还用祈使句。例如：HowIFinanceMyCollegeEducation?WhatWouldHappenIfThereWereNoPower,TheWorldIsGettingSmallerandSmaller等。,说明文的写作方法说明文通常分为三部分：第一部分点名要说明的事物；第二部分则使用例证、定义、分类、比较、因果关系等方法对事物进行说明，是说明文的核心部分；最后，通常用一句话或一段文字简短总结要点，例如：Automobileshavebeenplayinganimportantroleinthedailyactivitiesofhumansociety.Forexample,industryneedsthemfortransportingproducts,whileagriculturedependsonthemforfarmsupplies.Inaddition,automobilesareusedeverydaytocarrypeopletoandfromwork.Atweekends,automobilescantakefamiliesontours.Lifewithoutcars?Itisunthinkable.,1）例证说明通过举例使抽象的特征具体化是最简单、最常用、也是非常有效的说明手法。例证通常有两种表现形式：举例例证和细节说明。举例例证有时不使用任何明显的例证标志性词语，直接叙述事例，但更多的情况下，要借用一些举例标志来实现，如suchas,forexample,forinstance,takethecaseof,acaseinpoint等。细节说明则是通过细节描绘或数据来说明一个道理或一般事实。Americanscallitdoinghomework.Parentsandteachersthinkofitasalinkbetweenhomeandschool.Workthatstudentsdoathomeeachnightcangivetheirmothersandfathersinformationaboutwhatisbeinglearnedinschoolandhowitisbeingtaught.Nicholasisa17-year-oldhighschoolstudentinBurke,Virginia.Hehasabouttwohoursofhomeworkeachnight.Nicksayshespendsmoretimestudyingifheispreparingforatest.Hereisanexampleofonenightswork.LastThursdaynightNickhadtosolve20mathematicsproblems,readandtakenotesonabout30pagesofanAmericanhistorybook,answer15sciencequestionsandcompleteawrittenreportaboutpart-timejob.,2）列举说明列举说明是一种常见的说明手法。用这种方法说明事物，清楚明了。一般情况下，列举的顺序与内容的重要性、时间的先后、位置的远近等相关。常用的词语有：first,second/next/then,finally/lastly;one,another,stillanother;foronething,foranother等。Earlyrisingishelpfulinmorethanoneway.Firstly,ithelpstokeepusfit.Weallneedfreshair,buttheairisneversofreshasearlyinthemorning.So,doingmorningexercisecandogoodtoourhealth.Secondly,earlyrisinghelpsusinourstudies.Welearnmorequicklyinthemorning,andfinditeasiertorememberwhatwelearninthemorning.Thirdly,earlyrisingenablesustoplantheworkoftheday.Wecannotworkwellwithoutagoodplan.Justastheplanfortheyearshouldbemadeinthespring,sotheplanforthedayshouldbemadeinthemorning.Fourthly,earlyrisinggivesusenoughtimetogetreadyforourwork.,3）定义当要解释的主题为一概念时，通常使用下定义的方法解释事物的组成、特征、用途等，以区别于其他事物或现象。定义要用准确简洁的语言对事物的本质特征或区别于其他事物的属性进行说明。在解释说明一般的事物时，经常使用be,mean,becalled,bedefinedas,beknownas,bereferredtoas等给事物下定义。Onlyapersonfarawayfromhomeknowswhathomesicknessis.Itisthewelling-uptearsinyoureyes,thelumpinyourthroat,thewavinghandswhenthetrainisdrawingoutofthestationandtakingyouawayfromhome.Itisthestrengthwithwhichyouwalkthethreemilestoyourhomewithheavybagsinyourhandsafteralongtiringtrip,andthehalt,excitement,andhesitationatthedoorstep.,4）分类说明在说明文中，为了使读者更深入、更细致地了解所说明的事物，通常在概括性介绍或对事物进行通用定义后，通常还使用分类说明的手法做进一步解释。Therearetwogeneralkindsofsteel:carbonsteelandalloysteel.Carbonsteelcontainsonlyironandcarbon,whilealloysteelcontainsotherelementsaswell,suchasnickel,chromium,tungsten,etc.Thepropertiesofcarbonsteels,notablystrengthandhardness,dependontheamountofcarbontheycontain.Lowcarbonsteelisrelativelysoftandweak;mediumcarbonsteelisbothharderandstrongerthanlowcarbonsteel,whilehighcarbonsteelisthehardestandstrongest.Theadditionalelementsofalloysteelmakeitnotonlystrongerandharderthancarbonsteel,butresistanttorustaswell.Forthisreason,alloysteelisalsocalledstainlesssteel.,5）对比说明对比也是说明事物常用的手法，常和分类紧密联系。对事物分类之后通常对所分类的事物的异同进行比较，以便使读者更清楚地了解所说明的事物。对比说明事物时，可以通过比较级，也可以使用与比较有关的词或词组。这类词或词组有：bethesameas,besimilarto,beidenticalwith/to,becomparableto,beanalogousto,resemble,like,likewise,similarly,equallyimportant,inthesameway等；表示差异的词语包括：bedifferentfrom,differfrom,bedistinctfrom,unlike,incontrast,bycontrast,onthecontrary,conversely,instead,whereas,while等。Themostobviousdifferencebetweenradioandtelevisionisthatyoulistenandlookatthetelevision,butjustlistentotheradio.Inthisway,radioismoreimaginativebecauseitforcesyoutoformpicturesinyourownmindratherthanprovidingyouwithvisualinformation,whichiswhattelevisiondoes.Inaddition,radioismoreflexiblethantelevision,sinceStillanotheradvantageofradioisthatitismorepersonalthantelevision.,6）因果说明在需要解释事物的发生原因和产生的结果时，要通过客观、正确的推理将全文展开，使文章内容合乎逻辑，结构清楚。所要说明的主题中有reason,cause,justify,why,result,consequence,outcome,effect等词时，一般要用到因果说明法。表示因果关系的词语很多。WhyIWantaWifeIbelongtothatclassificationofpeopleknownaswives.IamAWife.And,notaltogetherincidentally,Iamamother.Nottoolongagoamalefriendofmineappearedonthescenefreshfromarecentdivorce.Hehadonechild,whois,ofcourse,withhisex-wife.Hisislookingforanotherwife.ItsuddenlyoccurredtomethatI,too,wouldliketohaveawife.WhydoIwantawife?IwouldliketogobacktoschoolsothatIcanbecomeeconomicallyindependent,supportmyself,and,ifneedbe,supportthosedependentuponme.Iwantawifewhowillworkandsendmetoschool.AndwhileIamgoingtoschoolIwantawifetotakecareofmychildren.Iwantawifetokeeptrackofthechildrensdoctoranddentistappointments.Andtokeeptrackofmine,too.Iwantawifetomakesuremychildreneatproperlyandarekeptclean.,Computervirus,whoseessencecomponentisasetofinstructions,isonekindofthreattothesecurityandintegrityofcomputersystem.Nowadayscomputersystemsworldwideareofteninfectedbycomputerviruses.Somecausethelossofprogramsanddate,erasefilesorsubtlyalterdata.Othersevencrashcomputersormakethemuseless.Inthisway,eachyeartheycausetensofbillions(US$)oflosses.Itsestimatedthereareabout4500kindsofcomputerviruses,beingunleashedattherateofabout5perday.Howterrible!Acaseinpointis“LoveBug”whichproclaims“ILoveYou”intheE-mailsubjectline.OncetheInternetsurferopensthefilewith“ILoveYou”,theviruseswouldcopythemselvesanddestroyvaluablecomputerpicturesandvideofiles.AnothercaseinpointistheCIH,whichisalsoverydestructive.Besides,therearealso“Tedious”,“ConceptF”and“ExploreZip”,“Romeotherefore,itisabsolutelynecessaryforustosaveandprotectthem.Secondly,inordertoprotectourenvironmentfromseriousgreenhouseeffect,weneedalow-carbonemission.Itislow-carbonlifethatenablesournextgenerationstoliveabetterandsuperiorlife.,Whatweshouldbearinmindisthattheearthiscommonhome.Thus,everyoneiswelladvisedtopracticethislifestyleandthereareseveralwaysforustodothis.Firstly,everyoneisexpectedtocultivatetheirawarenessofsavingenergy.Then,wearealsohopedtohelpourfamiliesandfriendstolivealow-carbonlife.Onlybydoingsocanwehopetocreateaworldwhereallhumansenjoyacleanandtidyenvironment.(185words),ConceptandBasicStructure,议论文的概念议论文是一种议论说理的文章，以抽象的思维形式，通过运用概念、判断、推理等逻辑形式论证和阐述作者的观点，表明作者赞成什么、反对什么。议论文的目的主要是说服别人接受或支持某种观点，同意所提出的某项决策或采取所倡导的某种行动。因此，议论文写作必须做到论点明确、论据充分、论证严密。议论文强调准确性和逻辑性，注重篇章结构，讲究修辞模式。另外，议论文常使用规范的书面语，因为书面语更能增添文章的厚重感和读者对文章的信任感。议论文的句子之间常使用连接词，以便使文章脉络更加清晰，逻辑关系更加流畅。,议论文的标题议论文的标题必须反映出议论的主题或作者的论点。所以，常用以下几种形式的标题：1）疑问句：这类标题本身就体现了争论的焦点。例如：WhoInfluenceYoungChildrenMost?IsaTestofSpokenEnglishNecessary?CanMoneyBuyHappiness?2）陈述句：这类标题本身就是议论文的论点。例如：ParentsAreSpoilingTheirChildren,RockMusicIsRottingOurKidsMind等。3）名词短语：这类标题没体现出论点，而是只提供了引论的主题。例如：ComputerGames,PositiveandNegativeAspectsofSports,MyViewontheNegativeEffectsofSomeAdvertisements等。4）介词短语：这类标题通常由介词on,toward等引出议论的话题。例如：OnReading,TowardaGoodTeacher-StudentRelationship等。,议论文与说明文密切相关。二者的相似之处在于：都有说理成分，都是解释某个事实或某个思想的文体。区别：说明文是客观的解释说明某一事物、观点等。而议论文则通过作者主观上的说理和论证来影响读者的思想和行动。,议论文要有三部分构成:论点、论据和论证。A.首先，提出论点。既然论点是全篇的思想，注意写作时，：开门破题。论点的提出要简洁、鲜明、清晰、不含糊其辞，不迂回曲折。让读者在最短时间内了解你最想说什么。（中西思维差异）同时论点一定要正确，否则不能自圆其说。B.其次，选择论据。论据是论证过程必备的手段。没有论据的论证空洞无物，形似枯槁。论据的来源有：事实依据（例证法）、数据显示、名言警句、格言、科学理论、专家见解等。,可争辩的论点任何一篇议论文必须有论点。议论文的论点是指作者在文章中所表明的主张、见解或观点，它是议论文的核心内容，是议论文的纲。议论文对论点的要求是：正确、鲜明、新颖。议论文的论点通常用Ibelieve,asfarasImconcerned,inmyopinion,tomymind,however,yet,unfortunately等词语引出。有时，作者不使用这些词语，而是直接表达自己的观点。,1）议论文的论点必须是可争辩的。例如，Idontthinkeuthanasiaishumane和Ibelievethatissuinglotteryticketsisagoodwaytocollectfundsforsocialwelfareprojects都是可争议的论点。相反，事实、个人偏爱、或已被科学证实为人们普遍接受的观点通常都是不可争辩的，因此不是好的论点。例如，languageisatoolforcommunication,myfavoritefoodisfish,pollutionisharmfultopeopleshealth都不适合做论点。,请看以下分析：a.Ithink,inChina,theexaminationscoreisregardedasimportantinmakingadecision.b.Inmyopinion,itisnoteasytoachievesuccess.c.Tomymind,taxishavebecomeanimportanttransportationmeans.d.Ithinkcooperationisveryimportantinourwork.e.Ibelieveweshouldhavemorefastfoodrestaurantsinbigcities.,2）论点必须鲜明，不能含含糊糊在开始学习议论文写作时，最好把论点放在开头，因为这样做能达到开宗明义、开门见山的效果，也为后面的论述创造条件。尤其是在考试中，一篇议论文的字数不多，应尽快地摆出论点，使文章中心明确，更应该把论点置于文章的开头。,C.进行论证。论证方法有：归纳法；演绎法；驳论法。根据论述的方法和角度，议论文大致可以分为四种类型：1。观点对立型议论文。基本步骤：引出话题摆出观点我的观点。还可细分为：1.1引出话题摆出一种观点表明我与之相对的另一种观点1.2引出话题分别提出两种观点表明我同意其中一种观点并说明,1.3引出话题分别提出了两种观点表明任何一种观点我都不同意并提出自己的观点.注意：倘若选择上面1.1或1.3的模式，那么可以在第二部分里留有足够的“谬论”空间，以便自己在后面加以反驳并建立自己的观点。若选择1.2模式，注意在第二部分写到自己同意的一方的观点时不要着墨太多，而应当把充分的文字语言流到第三部分加强自己的论证。以避免论据的重复。,实例：IsFailureaBadThing?Failureisacommonthinginourdailylife.Everybodyisboundtomeetwithfailuresmoreorlessintheirroutines.Isitagoodthingorbadthing?Thatsoftenahotdiscussion.(引出话题）Differentpeoplehavedifferentattitudestowardsfailure.Somepeoplewillbecomeverydisappointedaftertheblowoffailure.Theywilllosetheirconfidencetocontinuetheirwork.Asaresult,noprogressorachievementwillbemade.Incontrast,thebrightoneswilllearnfrom,failureandsumuptheirexperience,improvetheirmethodsandworkmorediligentlyandwisely.Finallysuccesswillbelongtothem.Manywell-knownscientists,suchasEdison,Nobel,MadamCurie,havesetusgoodexamplesInmyopinion,failureisnotabadthing.Itisimpossibleforustosucceedimmediatelyindoinganything.Onlysfteralotoffailuresandmakingpainstakingeffortscansuccessbeachieved.Failurewilllhelpusbecomemorerealisticandclever.Whencomingacrossfailure,Weshouldremembertheproverb:Filureisthemotherofsuccess,andnevergiveupourperseveranceuntilsuccessisapproaching.（1.2模式）,2.问题解决型议论文问题解决型议论文是遵循：提出问题分析问题解决问题的基本步骤进行的。审题时要弄清什么样的现象，第二部分要给出具体原因，第三部分给出相应对策。为了使文章有序，最好用firstly,secondly,finallyetc.的过渡词。例如下文;,JobProblemsforGraduatesItisreportedthatonly50%percentofcollegestudentsin2000couldfindjobsintheirspecialities,comparedwith89%percentin1981.Whydocollegegraduatesfinditincreasinglydifficulttogetarewardingjob?Onereasonperhapsisthatmanycollegesanduniversitiesfailtoadapttheircoursestothedevelopmentofeconomy.Degreecoursesofferedintheseinstitutionsofhigherlearningareoutdated,irrelevantandimpracticalthatthestudentsthemselvesfindithardtotranslatetheirbookknowledgeintorealjobskills.Second,thereisanoversupplyofgraduateincertainspecialities,andthenumberisincreasing.So,manyofthemcannotentertheprofessionforwhichtheyaretrainedandhavetotakeotherjobswhichdonotrequireacollegedegree.Collegegraduatesarevaluableresourcesinourcountry.Theproblemstheyencounterinjobhuntingdeservemoreattention.Firstly,thecollegeshouldgetstudentsoutoftheivorytowerandhavetheircoursesmeettheneedofthesocietysoastosuitthedevelopmentofthenationaleconomy.Secondly,thegovernmentshouldprovidecollegegraduateswithmoreopportunitiestodevelopnewskills.Thirdly,studentsthemselvesshouldtrainthemselvesinvariousfieldsratherthanstudyingsubjectsonly,toenlargetheireysightsandexpandtheirmind.,3.说明利弊型议论文这种是针对某一事物或现象从正反两方面分析他的优缺点，然后表明自己的看法，此类作文一般可以写成“三段式”或“四段式”的文章。具体写作步骤：描述现象表明其优点说明其缺点我的看法或观点。,4.阐述主题型议论文阐述型议论文主要就某一问题正面阐述自己的观点，说明自己的理由。阐述主题型议论文写作步骤：a.揭示成语、谚语、格言的蕴义以例证展开论证结论（号召或建议）b.引出主题按照提纲要求进一步分析主题结论（联系实际给出建议）。这种题型大多是带有说明色彩的议论文，它要求考生从一句话或一个主题出发，阐述其内涵，说明其重要性并以自己的观点或自身经验结尾。,ForaBetterUnderstandingBetweenParentandChildThereisoftenamisunderstandingbetweenparentandchildnowadays.Weoftenhearparentscomplainthattheirchildrenarebehavingunresonablywhilequitealotofchildrenwouldoftensaythathisorherparentsarejusthopelesslyoldfashinedandold-minded.Whenthechildencountersaproblem,hewillgotohisfriendsforadviceinsteadofparents,whoarelefttotallyunawareofthisproblem.Therearesomepossiblereasonsforthepresentsituation.Themostobviousoneisthattheygrowupatdifferenttimesandthereforehavedifferentopinionsandperspectivesforthethingsaroudnthem.Alsoparentisoftentoobusytolistenpatientlytotheexplainationofthechildwhenmisyunderstandingarises.BothofthemtakeitforgrantedthatthereisagenerationgapbetweenThem.,Tobridgethissocalledgenerationgap,bothparentandchildshouldmakeaneffort.Theyshouldtrytolookatthingsfromtheothersperspectives.Asastart,theyshouldtrytospendmoretimewitheachother.,预测之二：（问题解决型议论文）Directions:Forthispart,youareallowed30minutestowriteacompositiononthetopicCyberCrimes.Youshouldwriteatleast150words,andbaseyourcompositionontheoutline(giveninChinese)below:1)随着互联网的普及和应用，网络犯罪开始摆在世人面前2)应该如何来打击和预防网络犯罪越来越成为人们必须要解决的一个难题3)作为大学生，你应该怎么做?,CyberCrimesWiththepopularizationofInternet,cybercrimeshavebecomeaseriousproblemfacingus.NowadayscybercriminalsseemtobeeverywhereontheInternet.Toillustrate,somecommitfraudorliftintellectualproperty,otherssnatchpasswordsordisrupte-commerce,andstillothersunleashvirusestocrashcomputers.Asaresult,thesecrimesdestroynetworksecuritygreatlyandmakecomputeruserssuffergreatlosses.,However,weshouldnttoleratethesecybercriminalsanymore.Itshightimeforustotakeeffectivemeasurestofightagainstcybercrimes.First,weshouldreinforcethecyberlawstopunishcybercriminalsstrictly.Moreover,weshoulddevelophightechniquesassoonaspossibletoimproveintrusiondetectionandpreventcybercrimes.Besides,moretalentedpeopleshouldbetrainedandmoreeffectivefirewallsshouldbebuiltupsoastomakethenetimmunetoallkindsofviruses.,Ascollegestudents,wehaveresponsibilitytojointhebattleagainstcybercrimes.Foronething,weshouldnotuseotherscomputersunlesswegetpermission.Foranother,weshouldbehonesttoothersontheInternetandnotreleaseorspreadunrealinformation.Inaword,ittakesourcommoneffortstodefeatcybercrimes.,之二：Directions:Forthispart,youareallowed30minutestowriteacompositiononthetopicIsGoodAppearanceMoreImportantthanCapability?Youshouldwriteatleast150words,andbaseyourcompositionontheoutline(giveninChinese)below:1)现在很多漂亮的女孩子尽管没有很强的能力仍能找到很好的工作，因此一些人得出结论说外貌比能力更重要2)你是否同意?给出你的理由,IsGoodAppearanceMoreImportantthanCapability?Oldpeopleoftentelltheyoung,“Dontjudgeapersonbyhisappearance”,meaningcapabilityismoreimportantthanappearance.However,nowadays,withmoreinterviewersputtingemphasisonlooksandtheappearanceoftheapplicants,alotofpeoplecometotheconclusionthatappearanceismoreimportantthancapability.,Asforme,Icantagreewiththisargument.Goodappearanceispleasant,butcapabilityismoreimportant,becauseitdemonstratesonesself-cultivationandpracticalvalues.Itshowstheeffortsandthegloryofacquiringsomethingthroughoneshardworkwhereasgoodlooksbespeaknostruggleoftheindividual.Besides,maybesometimesabeautifulfacecanhelpagirlacquireagoodposition,butinthelongrunitishertalentnotherlookthatreallyworksinhercareerdevelopment.,Therefore,thosewithoutgoodappearanceneedntfeeldepressedbecauseonessuccessdependsonhiscapability;thosewithgoodappearancehavetoworkhardsincegoodappearancecannotbringapersonfinalsuccess.（观点对比性议论文）,历年来大部分四六级作文都是混合说明和议论的混合题材比较多。近几年，涉及社会热点话题的社会现象文章特别多，经常是针对某一现象阐述说明解释原因等。建议广泛搜集社会热点话题的相关材料以作为充分的论证。,
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