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2012词汇学复习资料The development of the English Vocabulary1. Indo-European Language Family The Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族 Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Prussian普鲁士语 Lithuanian立陶宛语 Polish波兰语 Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语 Czech捷克斯洛伐克语 Bulgarian保加利亚语 Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语 Russian Albanian阿尔巴尼亚 Persian波斯语 Hindi北印度语 Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系 Bengali孟加拉语 Romany，吉卜赛语 Armenian亚美尼亚语 Portuguese Spanish Italic意大利语族 Italian Roumanian罗马尼亚语 FrenchIndo-European Language Family Irish Celtic凯尔特语 Breton Scottish Norwegian挪威语 Icelandic，冰岛语 Danish丹麦语 Germanic Swedish瑞典语 日尔曼语言 English Dutch Flemish German Hellenic，古希腊语 - GreekChapter 1 A General Survey of A WordThe Definition of Word A word is(1) A minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unity of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. A word is a smallest unit of a language.1. The development of English vocabulary The history of English language can be divided into 3 periods:a/ Old English period (4491100) The former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes Anglo-Saxon as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand words, which consists of the basic word stock.b/ Middle English period (1100-1500) characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.The French loan words were found in law and governmental administration (judge, justice)c/ Modern English period (1500-) the early stage of this period ( including the years between 1500-1700), the Renaissance brought great changes to the vocabulary. borrowing from Latin, Latin were now mostly connected with science and abstract ideas. Greek borrowings were mostly literary, technical and scientific words2.Classification of English Words According to Different Criteria A. By Origin: native words and loan (borrowed ) words In English language, most native words in Modern English are monosyllabic. They form the great majority of the basic word stock of English language.The fundamental features of the basic word stock are: 1. National character; 2. Stability; 3. Word-forming ability; 4. Ability to form collocations Since the great majority of the basic word stock are native words, they are naturally the ones used most frequently in everyday speech and writing. B. By level of usage 1. Common words ( P11 words connected with ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life: “The repeated telephone calls only annoyed me but made my sister very angry.”) 2. Literary words (P12 words are chiefly used in writing, formal speeches, e.g. Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early.): a. Archaic words; b. Poetical words See P13 3. Colloquial words: Words used mainly in spoken English, in conversation among friends and colleagues,e.g. “John was fired for petty thieving” 4. Slang words C. By notion: function words and content ( P 17)l function words are short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and so on, they serve grammatical meaningl Content words have lexical meaning, such as nouns, main verbs, adj and adv.e.g. The passerby was hit by the truck.Chapter 2Word-Structure and Word-Formation(1)1. The definition of morpheme1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morpheme What are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents of morpheme? 语素 词素 -形位 2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). Task: (1) Read the following words and find the root in each word. heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly. (2) What is your definition of root? A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed. (3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?2.2.1 Two types of roots - Free root In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith. - Bound root However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc. these roots cannot be used to form new words.2.2.2 Two types of affixes Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express the following meanings: (1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; en in oxen. (2) the genitive case: e.g. s in boys, childrens. (3) the verbal endings: for example, a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense. b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present participle or gerund. c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past participle. (4) the comparative and superlative degrees: e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest, hardest.- Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes) can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. (1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite. As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech. task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech. - en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich - be- as in words like befriend, belittle - a- as in words like asleep, aside (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker. By the addition of the suffix,morphemefree morphemebound morphemeBound rootinflectional affixesderivational affixesprefixessuffixes the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemesMorpheme It is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.a) Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words.What is an allomorph?An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme. 语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。l A morpheme may take various shapes or forms.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formation In word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix. 在构词法中, 语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。 Two types of affixes: Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes屈折词缀和派生词缀n Inflectional affixes function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。-s ,-es ,ing,-er ,or -(e)d,estDerivational affixes or derivational morphemes They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. (1) Prefixes are affixes before the root. e.g.， unjust, rewrite. As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech. (2) Suffixes are affixes after the rootBy the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.Root, stem, base 词根、词干、词基A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。n A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。n A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem.n 词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。n 词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。n 词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。n 词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。 它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。Task: Analyse the word in terms of root, stem and base.undesirable (n.): 不是词根（可再分解）；是词干（可以加屈折词缀，如名词复数 -s），也是词基。 free morpheme (自由形位) Morpheme: bound root (粘附词根)(形位) bound morpheme（粘附形位） inflectional affix（屈折词缀） affix prefix （前缀） （词缀） derivational affix （派生词缀） suffix （后缀）1. Affixation (derivation) 词缀法 Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. According to the positions that affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses; prefixation and suffixation.Prefixation: Prefix do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes. e. g. asleep a (a- + v), encourage V (en- + n), unearth V (un- + n), de-oil V (de- + n), postwar a (post- + n), intercollege a (inter- + n) and others. These make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change the meaning of the stems.Suffixation: Suffixes have only a small semantic role; their primary function is to change the grammatical function of stems. They mainly change the word class. Therefore, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into four groups.2. compoundingCompounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word (Quirk et al 1985). Silkworm蚕 and hone-ybee 蜜蜂are compounds; so are tear gas催泪 and easy chair安乐椅. These examples show that compounds can be written solid (silkworm), hyphenated(honey-bee) and open (tear gas and easy chair) As open compounds are the same in form as free phrases, what is the dividing line between them? 2.1Characteristics of CompoundsCompounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects. 1.Phonetic features In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases, e.g.CompoundFree phrasea hot1house温房, 暖房,干燥室a hot housea black horsea black horsea green rooma green roomBut these stress patterns of compounds are not absolute. Sometimes, the primary stress may also fall on the second element as in ash-blonde 灰银and , bottle- green 深绿色的as well as in combining-form compounds, socio-lin guistic, psycho-a nalysis. Therefore, this is not always reliable. 2.Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. For instance, a green hand is an inexperienced person, not a hand that is green in colour; red meat refers to beef or lamb rather than any meat that is red in colour; hot dog is by no means a dog that is hot, but a typical American sausage in between two pieces of bread. The meanings of such examples cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compounds.Nevertheless, a lot of compounds are transparent, that is the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds. Consider the following random examples: disaster- related, flower pot, washing machine, dumb show哑剧, scarlet fever 猩红热and many others. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of the element would result in the loss of the original identity. 3.Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. Bad-mouth used as a verb can take the third person singular -s and the past tense marker -ed, e. g. He bad-mouthed me. 苛刻批评 (Bolinger and Sears 1981) Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional -s at the end, e.g. new-borns, three-year-olds, will-o -the-wisps, major generals. 少将 Of course, there are exceptions such as brothers-in-law, lookers-on . In spite of this their single grammatical role is apparent.In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes, for example:CompoundFree phrasefine art美术finer art美艺术red tape官样文章reddest tape最红带子hot linehotter line线路, 航线3. ConversionConversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Look at the word round in the following sentences: 4a He was knocked out in the first round. 4b Round the number off to the nearest tenth. 4c The neighbours gathered round our barbecue. 4d The moon was bright and round. 4e People came from all the country round. (from Lodwig & Barrett 1973)4. Blending拼缀法 4.1 What is blending? Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed from two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. The result of such a process is called a blend, which combines the sounds and the meaning of two others. The majority of blends are nouns, very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. According to structure, blends fall into four major groups. 4.2 Classification of blending Structurally, blends can be subdivided into the following five groups:(1) The first part of the first word + the last part of the second one: head + tail Chinglish, smog(2) First part of the first word + first part of the second word: head + head sci-fi, telecon(3) Whole form of the first word + last part of the second one: word + tail newscast, workfare(4) First part of the first word + whole form of the second one: head + word heliport, telediagnosis (5) Whole form of the first word + first part of the second one: word+ head skylabv Many blends have only a very short life and are very informal. They are particularly common in commercial and journalistic language. 5. ClippingAnother common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead. In modern times, people tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep up with the tempo of new life style. To save time one is likely to clip words that are frequently used. There are four common types of clipping:(5) Front Clipping截前留后Quake(earthquake) copter (helicopter) scope (telescope)phone (telephone) gym (gymnastics)(6) Back clipping截后留前Dorm(dormitory) memo(memorandum) stereo (stereophonic)disco(discotheque)(7) Front and back clipping截前后留中间Flu(influenza) fridge ()refrigerator(8) Phrase clipping截词组 Pub (public house) zoo(zoological garden) pop(popular music) perm(permanent waves)6. Acronymy首字母拼音法Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Depending on the pronunciation, words formed in this way are called initialisms词首字母缩略词or acronyms首字母拼音词1) Letters represent full words: VOA, BBC, c/o= care of 由.转交, p.c.= post card2) Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: TV. ID=identity card, GHQ= General Headquarters.Acronyms A word formed from the initial letters but pronounced as a normal word, such as radar for ra dio d etecting a nd r anging.NATO, AIDS BASIC,TEFLN-bomb, D-day, V-day7. Back-formation逆构法Words created through this way are mostly verbs. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal. What is back-formation? Back-formation is a process of word formation by which a word is created by the deletion of the supposed affix. For instance, the verb edit was formed from editor by dropping the suffix or. The verb aggress was formed from the noun aggression by removing the suffix ion.7.1 Types of back-formation (1) Verbs backformed from nouns ending in -er, -or, -ar:cobbler修鞋匠- to cobbleTo make or mend (boots or shoes).修：制造或修理（长统靴或鞋） rover- wanderer.流浪汉；漫游者- to rovebulldozer推土机- to bulldozeTo clear, dig
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