顾建光《公共管理英语》课文翻译

公共管理英语部分翻译(目前缺第四章、第六章、第七章翻译)第一章Opening Administration to the Public政务公开得益于2001年11月16日生效的政府最近实施的邀请市民旁听政府会议的行政事务公开改革措施,安徽省蚌埠市的市民现在有机会参加市政府会议。每次行政事务会议邀请10名市民参加。邀请参加重要会议的人数是可以变化的。这些旁听者可以是人大代表、政协委员、民主党派的要员、工商联代表及其他。他们要至少18岁，并且愿意参加会议。旁听者可以通过政府部门以书面形式发表他们的意见。Increasing Transparency增加透明度在部分城市和农村的基础上，今年的上半年，广东省已要求村及村以上的政府行政事务都要公开。所有有关法律、规章和公民必须遵循的政府决定，只要不涉及政党和中央政府的机密，都要向公众公开。具体内容如下：经济社会发展战略，工作目标和它们的完成情况；重大决策和政策的主动过程；财政预算和执行情况；专用基金的分配和重要物资的购买；主要基本建设计划和它们的招投标；政府投资的公共福利项目；政府审批的项目及完成情况；政府向公众承 事项的完成情况；有关公民、法人、组织权益的法律实施；重大事件的处理；-官员的选拔任用，公务员的录用，先进工作者的评价，员工调动的原则改革及公众关心的其他问题； 政府机构的职能和官员的职责； 工作内容、条件、流程和时间以及工作效果； 工作原则，承担义务、对违反应承担义务的起诉方法及调查结果；Apart from opening administrative affairs to society, various departments of the Guangdong Provincial Government have been required to open their internal system construction, work operations and management, specifically the self-discipline of officials; income and expenditure of the department; management of the human resources, distribution of income to workers and staff members as well as their welfare treatment; and other issues.除了向社会公开行政事务，广东省已经要求各政府部门公开机关内部结构，工作运转方式和管理情况，特别是官员的自律情况；部门的收入和经费开支情况，工作人员的收入分配和他们的福利待遇，以及其它事项。Knowing government administration is one of peoples fundamental rights, and the opening of administrative information has become an indispensable part in the governments administration. In the meantime, opening government administration is also a main principle of the WTO, listed on most of its documents. After Chinas entry into the WTO, it was required to be better in this field. Chinas transformation of government functions lags behind that of its economic growth.了解政府的行政行为是公民基本权力之一，政务公开是政府的应尽的职责。公开行政信息是已经是政府管理中必不可少的部分。同时，政务公开也是WTO的一项主要原则，被列在WTO的大部分文件中。在中国加入WTO后，被要求在这方面做得更好。中国的政府职能转变落后于它的经济增长。A fresh move the opening of government administration still needs improvement. Experts appealed to the state to place great importance on the issue by setting up special department to handle related affairs, and devising a law on opening government administrations.政务公开作为一项新举措仍需要改进。专家希望政府将其放在更重要位置，通过设置处理相关事务的专门部门，对政务公开进行立法。Red-Title Document Open to the Public对公众公开红头文件At the end of last year, the Beijing municipal government, located on Zhengyilu Road, placed a reception desk at the entrance of its west gate from Monday to Friday to receive citizens who come to the Beijing Municipal Government Bulletin. Since the bulletin opened to the public in early 2002, the telephone at the editorial office has kept ringing. Many of the calls come from Guangdong, Zhejiang, Heilongjiang provinces and Hong Kong SAR, inquiring about subscription procedures.在去年底，位于遵义路上的北京市政府，每周一到周五在其西大门入口处放置接待桌以接受市民来征订北京市政府公告。早在2002年政府公告向公众公开后，编辑部的电话就一直响着。许多电话来自广东、浙江、黑龙江和香港特区，来咨询征订程序。The bulletin, which contains government regulations, administrative orders and decisions, is popularly known as a “red-title document” and is a mystery to most people, because it only reached leaders above bureau level in the past. 包括政府规章、行政命令和决定的公文过去常称为红头文件，对大多数人而言是神秘的，因为它过去只发到局级以上干部。Wei Guiqin, director of the Beijing Huiyuan Law Office, is among the first to subscribe to the bulletin. “The public distribution of the bulletin helps us a lot in our job,” he said. 魏贵勤，北京惠元律师事务所所长，是第一批来征订公告的。他说：“公告的公开发行对我们的工作帮助很大。”The government of many other provinces and cities have also opened their bulletins to the public, including Henan and Shanxi provinces, and cities such as Guangzhou, Wuhan, Qingdao and Yinchuan. The government of the bulletins are functionally the same as other official documents. 许多别的省市也已经向公众公布了公告，如河南、陕西，城市如广州、武汉、青岛和银川。政府公告与其它官方文件功能上是一样的。Shanghai was the first city to open its bulletin to the public. Since the beginning of last year, the bulletins have been sent not only to major institutions and enterprises under the jurisdiction of the municipal government, but also to 100 selected newspaper and magazine booths, 50 postal zones 50 Xinhua bookstores, where citizens can get them for free. The bulletins have attracted the attention of many people, most of whom are lawyers and accountants. 上海是第一个向公众公布了公告的城市。自去年初，公告不仅通过市政府正常渠道发送到主要公共机构和企业，还发送到经挑选产生的100个报刊亭、50个邮政亭、50个新华书店，在那里市民可以免费取得公告。公告已经引起许多公民的注意，其中大部分是律师和会计。 “Supermarket of administrative Affairs政务超市Five years ago, Huang Songji, a laid-off female employee in Nanjing, invesred 50000 yuan to set up a kindergarten. However, she was soon asked to close down, as she failed to follow relevant procedures. She sought assistance at the Supermarket of Administrative Affairs, and with guidance by the staff, Huang quickly obtained all necessary procedures. 五年前，黄松基，南京一名下岗女工，投资5 万元办了一个育儿园。然而，她很快被勒令关门，因为她没有履行相关手续。她在政务超市寻求帮助，在工作人员的帮助下，她很快办理了所有手续。What is the Supermarket of Administrative Affairs and how effective is it? 什么是政务超市？它的效果如何？The first supermarket was launched by the government of Xiaguan District, Nanjing City, in the residential communities of Xiaoshi and Rehenanlu on October 16, 2000. the government set up its offices in a big hall to handle various administrative affairs, including more than 40 services related to civil affairs, employment, municipal construction, economy, handing of complaints and law enforcement. It indeed has supermarket features of openness, efficiency and a variety of choice, hence the name, Supermarket of Administrative Affairs. Five other of residential quarters followed suit a year later. 第一个政务超市是2000年10月16日在南京下关区热河南路的小石居委会建立的。政府在一个大厅设置办公场所以解决多种行政事务，包括 种有关民政事务、劳动就业、市政建设、经济、投诉的处理和法律实施。它的确具有超市的开放、效率和多样化选择的特质，因此被称为政务超市。一年后另五个居民区的政务超市随之成立。The supermarket practices a responsibility system to solve problems, and serve clients. In addition, supervision and feedback procedures have also been adopted. The system, which enables citizens to learn about government administrative affairs, contributes to the governments effort to open administrative affairs. Sun Wei, a “supermarket” staff member, said that in the past, policies were locked in the office drawer. Now they are placed on the wall, clearly indicating problems and possible timelines for their solution. Furthermore, the telephone number to contact in cases of complaint against the behavior of “supermarket” employees is also available to the public. Employees subject to customer complaints are given three chances, and penalties include criticism the first time, bonus deduotion the second time, and dismissal the third time. 政务超市提供了一个解决问题、服务委托人的负责任的系统。另外，监督和反馈程序已经被采用。这个能够使公众了解政府行政事务的系统，归功于政府的政务公开。孙伟，一名“政务超市”的工作人员说，在过去政策是被锁在办公室的抽屉里。现在是挂在墙上，清楚地标明问题和解决这些问题的时间。更重要的是，针对政务超市工作人员的投诉电话是向公众公开的。工作人员有三次被客户投诉的机会，处罚包括第一次批评，第二次扣奖金，第三次解雇。Since district government powers have been transferred to the “supermarket”, the service items are wider than those formerly offered by the residential community, such as the approval of small loans to help the poor and victims of natural disasters; handling applications for subsidies if their living standards is below the poverty line; granting licenses to small restaurants; leasing newspaper booths and registering the unemployed. Apart from these services, the “supermarket” has also set up a training room, a law consultation room and a suggestion box, as well as a telephone hotline to answer questions. In addition, government leaders regularly visit the “supermarket” to interact with the public in person. 自从地方行政权力转到“超市”，服务项目比过去居委会提供的范围更大了，如对贫困户和突发自然灾害的小额贷款的审批，受理低保补助申请，小酒店许可证的核发，报刊摊位的出租和失业登记。除了这些服务，“超市”还提供一个服务间，一个咨询室和意见箱，一部回答问题的热线电话。另外，政府领导定期到“超市”同公众面对面交流。Many citizens have expressed their satisfaction with the “supermarket”. 许多市民对“超市”表示满意。 “It quickly solves problems, and shortens the psychological distance between leaders and the masses. Surveys recently conducted in five supermarkets indicated that citizens are satisfied with measures,” said Xu Xuwqin, who is in charge of the publicity of the Xiaguan residential community. “它很快解决问题，缩短了领导和群众之间的心理距离。对五个“超市”的调查表明群众对这些措施是满意的”许学琴，一名居委会宣传部门负责人说。The “supermarket” of administrative service in Nanjing has exerted a positive influence to the entire country. Similar supermarkets have opened in Shenyang, Shanghai and Fuzhou. 南京这种行政服务“超市”已经在整个国家产生了正面的影响。在沈阳、上海和福州都建了类似的超市。The “supermarket” in Shanghai, known as the Center of Residential Affairs, now has 80 branches in the entire city, offering more than 50 services. A civil affairs official said that in the next three years, every community and town would set up such as a “supermarket” to form a network covering the entire area. 上海的“超市”，作为居民事务的中心，现在整个城市有80个分支，提供50项服务。一名国内事务的政府官员说在未来三年，每一个社区和集镇都要建类似的“超市”以形成覆盖整个地区的网络。Media reports recently stated that relevant departments have planned to set up a multi-functional and multi-level service system throughout the country, which offers services on personnel matters, domicile registration, matrimonial registration, enterprise registration, tax payment, license distribution and the approval of land utilization. Service centers and related ranches will be set up in densely populated communities. Meanwhile, a standardized service network and unified regulations will also be established, and related workers will wear name tags for the benefit of customers. 媒体报道，有关部门已经计划在全国建设多功能、多层次的服务体系，以提供人事事务、居民登记、婚姻注册、企业登记交税、许可证的分配和土地使用权的审批。服务中心和有关的分支机构将被建在人口密集的社区。同时，标准的服务网络和统一的制度也将建立，相关工作都将在为将在为顾客的目标下进行。 “E-Government”电子政府Placing government administrative affairs on the Internet appears to be a growing world trend for government working toward open administration. Resources on government work available on the Internet can be effectively utilized. Furthermore, this practice will enhance the transparency if the government, reduce administrative expense, improve work efficiency and facilitate the construction of a diligent and honest government. 将政府的行政事务在互联网上公布越来越成为世界上政府向公众公开事务的一种倾向。研究表明，提供在互联网的政府工作是被有效利用的。更重要的是，这个实践将提高政府的透明度，降低行政费用，提高工作效率并更利于数字政府和诚信政府的建设。China has a long way to go before it can develop an online government. However, beginning in the mid-1980s when China first called for office automation, up until 1998 when China began to develop e-government project, it has promoted e-commerce in government departments, using the Internet to release information, handling day-to-day office business and offering other services. 中国在发展在线政府还有很长的路要走。然而，自80年代中期中国首先提出办公自动化到1998年开始发展电子政府项目，它已经促进政府部门的网上交流，日常办公事务的处理和提供其他帮助。In recent years, China has rapidly developed the e-commerce development and implementation. Second, many government web sites with increasingly rich content and sophisticated functions have appeared. A recent survey stated that more than 2200 government web sites currently exist in the entire country, and have played a major role in driving the construction of information industry. 近年来，中国加快电子政府的发展。首先，工商部门，海关税务和公共安全部门已经率先加快电子政府的发展和设备配置步伐。其次，许多具有越来越多内容和高级功能的政府网站已经出现。最近的调查表明整个国家有2200个政府网站，已经在促进信息工业建设方面承担了主要角色。A bilingual web site, Chinashanghai, in both English and Chinese, was launched on September 28, 2001. it serves as a platform for government information dissemination for the benefit the citizens. “中国上海”，一个英汉双语网站，在2001年9月28日建成。它为市民提供政府信息传播服务平台。Chinashanghai is devoted to the establishment of an “e-government.” Its home page, entitled Todays Event, provides information on major activities and events, and reports on various hot topics of discussion. Pages containing government bulletins, government documents, regulations and other information have also been released. The Law and Regulations page introduces various rules and regulations, the Shanghai Brief page provides information on the least development trends in the city, and the Investment page offers information on the investment environment and various investment policies, explaining the urban construction plan, the development of the Pudong New Area, the development of development zones and investment projects. The Services page, on the other hand, provides information on topics more closely related to peoples lives, such as weather, transport, healthcare, education and tourism. This page also offers legal assistance to disadvantaged groups. The Business Guidance page provides useful information on competent institutions, as well as their addresses, contact details, procedures for handling certain affairs, and channels for dealing with lawsuits. Finally, the Handling Affairs Online page enables users to inquire on certain items, and download online forms and applications. “中国上海”致力于电子政府的创建。它的主页标有今日大事，提供主要活动和事件的信息，多种热点讨论话题的报道。页面包括政府公告，政府公文、规章和其它已公布的信息。法律规章的页面介绍了多种规章制度，网站的首页提供了城市最新发展趋势，投资页面提供投资环境信息和各种投资政策，说明城市建设规划、浦东新区的发展、开发区的发展和投资项目。另一方面，服务页面提供诸如天气、交通、保健、教育和旅游等更贴近百姓生活的内容。这一页也对弱势群体提供法律救助。商务导航页面提供有法定资格协会有用信息，如地址、联系方式、具体事务处理的程序、诉讼的渠道。最后，在线事务处理使用户能够咨询具体事务，在线下载表格和申请。Chinashanghai will also connect with its affiliated stations to establish a better government network by the end of this year. In addition, Shanghai plans to set up a large portal within the next five years, which will be among Chinas first-class ones and match international advanced level. By the end of the 10th Five-Year Plan period (2001-2005), all the government departments related to social management and services will be on the network. 到今年底，“中国上海”也将增加联网的附属站点以更好实现政府网络工作。另外，上海计划在下一个五年建立一个在中国处于一流、达到世界水平的大型门户网站。至第十个五年计划期末，所有的与社会管理和服务的政府部门都要实现网上工作。Open Urban Planning公开城市建设规划Over the past two years, Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin have made public their city construction plan, a change from their former closed-door working style. The procedures and timetable for the examination and approval of projects, regulations and laws, and technological indexes in relation to the projects are now also out in the open, much to the great enthusiasm of the citizens. 过去两年间，北京，上海和天津已经公布了他们的城市建设规划，这和以前的关门工作是个改变。项目申报审批的程序和时间、规章制度、项目相关的技术流程标准现在都公开，更多是广大热心的市民。Last October, Beijing held an exhibition on the overall city planning. During holidays and weekends, the 3000-square0meter hall received about 1500 people each day. “We have not expected so many citizens to be so interested in city planning,” said Qiu Yue, a member of the Beijing Municipal City Planning Committee. 去年10月，北京举行了城市整体建设规划展览会。在节假日和周日，平方米的展览厅每天接待1500名来访者。“我们没有想到有这么多市民对城市建设规划感兴趣。”邱越，北京市城市规划委员会的工作人员说。Many visitors filled thick suggestion books with feedback, providing constructive ideas, such as building another world trade center in the north; retaining the lay-out of the narrow alleys and the courtyard homes; and informing citizens on city construction projects on time. The exhibition organizers then sorted the suggestions and delivered them to the decision-making department. 许多来访者写了厚厚的建议，提出了建设性的建议，如在北部建设另一个世界贸易中心，及时将城市建设项目通知市民。随后，展览会的组织者整理了这些建议，将它们提供给了决策部门。 “Beijing city planning to the public shows the governments determination to promote the opening up of administration affairs, and this is a significant development,” said a visitor. “将北京城市建设规划向公众展示表明了政府在促进行政事务开放的决心，这是一个有重要意义的进步”以名来访者说。Zhou Chang, Secretary general of the China Architectural Society, agreed. “The opening up of the urban planning process can improve things greatly, as major decisions will go through the approval of experts, the suggestions of citizens and the supervision of the media,” said Zhou. 周畅，中国建筑协会秘书长同意这种观点。他说“城市规划的公开程序会使极大促进规划工作，因为决策要经过专家的审核、市民的建议和舆论的监督”Shan Qixiang, director of the Beijing Municipal City Planning Committee, said the opinions of the both experts and the masses will be pooled together before a decision on any important plans for urban construction are reached. 单启祥，北京市城市规划委员会主任说在任何重要城市建设计划做出之前所有专家和群众的意见都将会被集中起来。Administrative affairs行政事务Financial budget财政预算Domicile registration居民登记Matrimonial registration婚姻登记Handling Affairs Online在线事务办理第二章为什么要进行公共管理改革？公共管理改革通常被认为是一种达到目的的手段，而并非目的本身。更准确说，我们可以认为它是一种潜在地达到多种目的的手段。这些目的包括：在公共支出中形成节余（经济），提高公共服务的质量，使政府的运作更加有效，增加被选用的和实施的政策变得有效的机会。为了实现这些重要的目标，公共管理改革还可能为一系列中间目标提供服务，包括强化政治家对官员的控制和把公务员从官僚主义的限制中解放出来，因为这些限制阻碍了他们进行管理的机会；增强政府的政策和计划对立法部门和公民的责任性。最后，但并非最不重要的是，我们还应该提到公共管理改革的象征性的和合法性的好处。这些好处对于政治家而言，至少可被人们认为他们正在有所作为。比如宣布进行改革，批评官僚主义，表扬新的管理技术，许诺在未来改进服务，重组部门和办事机构所有这些内容都能把有利的注意力吸引到主张这些事情的政治家身上。一个愤世嫉俗的人可能会发现，在如今，由于地方、国家和国际限制等复杂的相互作用，单个政府独立行动的权力而日益受到质疑，政府的部长们通常所能做的事情以充满活力的面貌出现仅需极小的直接代价就是在他们自己的统治机器内部宣布改革。这对那些在提出和执行这样的倡议时几乎总要扮演重要角色的高级官员也有合法性的好处。他们可能会因为参与“现代化”和“提高效率”的工作而获得尊重。 如果管理改革真会产生更廉洁、更有效并具有更高服务质量和更有效规划的政府，如果它同时还会强化政治控制，把管理者解放出来，让他们进行管理，使政府更透明，并且能提升最积极参与的部长和官员们的形象，那么它被广泛鼓吹也就不足为奇。不幸的是，事情并非如此简单。众多证据表明，管理改革会走入歧途。它们可能无法产生所谓的好处。它们甚至可能导致相反的结果，从而使相关的行政过程（在某些重要的方面）变得比以前更糟。比如，某个地方机关一项为老人和残废人提供“家庭帮助”（家庭照顾）的计划按照准市场的原则进行了重新修改，将购买服务的当局和提供服务的成员分离开来，我们可能认为这是一项典型的“改革”。然而，如果我们发现，为这项服务而起草的合同文件厚达700页，而实际提供的服务在数量上和质量上只有非常小的改变时，质疑就开始产生了。我们会想，在双方之间建立更多的信任也许会是更好的选择，这样，合同文件就会简短得多（甚至可能根本不需要合同），并且会大大减少监督费用。 此外，即便一项特定的改革确实在上面提到的一个或两个目标方面（节余或质量的改进）获得了“成功”，它也不可能完全获得成功。实际上，我们在后面会说明，行政改革中导致的权衡和两难困境很常见，因此，某一项或两项目标的实现很可能会被其他方面较差的表现“抵消”：“官僚体制中专门的决策者遵循的规则是，一次针对一个目标采取措施，从而控制平衡但他们没有认识到，紧缩某一项指标意味着放松另一项指标”。例如，如果我们对公务员实施更有效的政治监督和控制，我们能否同时赋予他们更多的自由和管理的灵活性？乐观主义者会说能，他们会提出一个更清晰、更简单的规则，从而使管理者在规则范围之内“获得创造性”。怀疑主义者会说不能，他们会指出，有调查证据表明，连管理者自己都觉得政治“干预”增加了，期望政治家在诸如社会安全、医保、教育或监狱服务等政治上很敏感的领域里会“不画蛇添足”，那是不现实的。 不管怎样，公共管理改革只是达到第一段中所提到的期望目标的手段之一。说得更准确点，对公共管理改革本质的任何描述都需要考虑到政府的表现可以通过很多途径得到改善，并考虑到管理改革经常与其他政策方案联系在一起。在对很多国家的行政发展进行比较之后，有一个学者最近发现：“行政改革是所有政策表现的一个部分，并不是一套独立的技术工作”。 改善政府表现的其他途径包括政治改革（例如选举制度或立法程序的改变）以及关键政策的根本性改变（例如新的宏观经济管理政策，劳动力市场改革，或社会政策的根本性的改变）。本书导言中提到过新西兰的案例，在这个案例中新西兰把管理改革同宏观经济政策以及选举制度的根本改变组合在一起。 许多评论人士注意到，使情况变得更复杂的是改革的滞后性，这种滞后性大大影响了公共管理改革本身。公共部门程序和结构的重大变化所产生的所有好处一般要在改革计划开始后的3年、4年、5年甚至更晚才能获得。首先，改革需要新的立法。然后需要对现状进行分析，而后则要设计、形成和修改新的操作程序，还要训练人员按程序操作，规定新角色，确定合适的奖励机制，恰当地制定新的评估制度，通知服务的使用者和利益攸关方，还要努力减少所有这些创新可能在使用者和工作者中引起的焦虑。但这却不是最高层的政治家乐意接受的时间表。他们关心更短期的效果：下一次选举，下一届政府的改组，甚至当天的电视新闻。政治注意力的焦点从一个事项到另一个事项的变化周期要比复杂的组织变化能够完成的目标快得多。虽说情况总是如此，但政治家对于“现在就能展示点什么”的需要和组织改革者需要时间、努力和持续性之间的矛盾却总是产生，这也许正是许多西方民主国家政治过程强化和加速的产物。 第三章 行政及地方公共服务改革：简介80年代以来，有很强的公共服务改革及现代化的运动。权力下放及自由化 容许市场发挥提供公共服务的功能 是其中两个重要趋势。法国及西班牙的发展能清楚表达这种趋势，而英国则更倾向集权，虽然在一些情况下权力也会下放到地方。在西班牙，权力下放是一个国家的选择，也是宪法所规定；同时，公共服务自由化也和社区融合以及开放市场连在一起。地方管理的现代化不一定经常依照一个统一的、全球的计划；很多时候，反而是对地方税收的不稳定状况以及人们对地方服务需求的增加的回应。在英国，这个概念则比较持续的在发展，目的为引进一种受到私营企业影响的新的公共管理哲学，结果也叫英国的公共服务逐渐离开其自19世纪中叶赖以建立的原则。权力下放标志着地方民主的回归，而地方政府代表很快也扮演这种角色。地方自治的确立包含着各方面的公共政策，包括社会服务、经济发展、文化、基建、城市规划及环境保护等。渐渐的，一种管治模式慢慢在三个国家建立，虽然只有在英国它以法律（2000年的地方政府法）被间接的确认下来。这个原则就成为了服务创新以及地方回应公民的集体需要的基础。地方的行动能力逐渐在扩展；而一些跨地方的功能性组织也在发展。但是，法国与西班牙的情况跟英国不太一样。 在法国及西班牙，权力下放意味着对地方政府的赋权并给予更大的自由。而在英国，在地方层次的“福利国家化”反而让中央政府对地方有更大的控制权。80年代以及贝利亚政府的改革在这方面是一致的。 公共管理的现代化遵循着之前提到的原则而进行，实际上让地方政府的权力有所缩减。原因是一方面，中央政府对某些政策范畴加强了控制（如教育，地方税收上限）；另一方面，一些地方公共服务被市场化。再者，新的管理随伴着新的绩效标准以及新的监控方式。 除了权力下放，国家公共服务的自由化，随伴着欧洲新的关于公共工程合约法律的出台，加强了地方公共服务供给的竞争，也增加了地方政府选择地方服务管理模式的自由。原则上，该法律并没有指定使用私营或委托管理方式。但是，它大大的增加了使用市场力量的义务。 针对法国及西班牙的地方公共服务法律也显示出这些改革的范畴及现实。研究这两个国家的系统特别相关，因为使用私营管理的要求就在它们的传统中。 私营的管理很多时候假设有私人的资金来源来支持一项服务甚至一项基建；私营公司的管理也意味着以商业原则去提供服务，并受到私营公司的相关法例规管。 在西班牙的法律，地方公共组织的地位非常有弹性，很多时候也是通过立法来产生。 这些组织受到私营企业的法律规管，并使用通用的管理系统来管理，员工只现有一般劳工的地位。 这些要求、标准制约着地方选择服务管理模式的自由。 第五章 What Is Community?什么是社区Communities are natural human associations based on ties of relationship and shared experiences in which we mutually meaning in our lives, meet needs, and accomplish the persons we were meant to become, discover meaning, generate ethical values, and develop a culture a culture which would be impossible for single, isolated individuals to accomplish alone. 社区是基于各种相互联系和共同经历而形成的自然的人类组织.在社区里,我们的生活互相影响,包括如何满足需要,如何成为我们理想中的人,意义的发现,伦理价值的产生,以及开创一种文化.这种文化对于单独的,孤立的个体来说是不可能创造的.When we talk about community, we talk about two things simultaneously. Community is located in space and time and it exists beyond space and time. Community is embodied in a space, structure, and presence, but community transcends location; it cannot confined by structure or mere history. 当我们谈论社区时，我们同时谈论两个方面。 社区处于时空中,但它能超越时空而存在。社区体现为一定的空间,结构和现在，但它又超越了地点,并且不可能被仅仅局限于某种结构或历史。Embodied Community社区的具体性Every one of us needs community. Community arises spontaneously because of an innate sociality of the human condition. With relatively rare exceptions