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Introduction check your understanding1. f Syntax and semantics each have their own strengths.2. f Pragmatics is also interested in how language use affects the language system.3. t 4. f 5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, hes coming.(2) Yes. No, he isnt coming(3) His knowledge about whether Pat likes cognitive linguistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as an inanimate object cant play a human being (John).c. It is a case of tautology that conveys no new information.d. “Idea” doesnt have color and cant sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesnt make sense.(2) a. it can be used for communication in a context where John shares some personality with Hitler.b. when John is a poor player of golf.c. in a context where a certain boy has done something wrong (out of naughtiness).(3) when the sentence is used in poetry to personalize the word idea.3.(1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. In the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infant diapers.4. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people private conversation, it is normal that “I” cant hear a word (thus the couple can continue their talk). 5.(1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。6. (1) This is an advertisement for a holiday inn and its food is so delicious that it can make the customers wife jealous. The “French toast” probably means a type of specialty provided by this holiday inn.(2) C: 你去哪里？ 吃饭了没？E: How are you? Hows everything going?7. (1) He means he doesnt speak French.(2) Russian majors dont speak French.(3) Yes. It helps to indicate a negative answer.8. (1) a. He uses “that” under the assumption that his mom knows which letter is being referred to. b. He uses an imperative sentence to ask her mother to close the window, which is impolite.(2) Johnny: Mom, Ping Ping is coming to visit us this afternnoon. Mother: Who is Ping Ping?(3) Wang: Its not my fault, is it? Li: Yes. - Native speaker: Hi, you look good. Zhang: Not good, not good at all.Exercises Task3.1. when we get someone to do something, we tend to minimize the effort to be involved, but when we complain we tend to exaggerate the complaint. People want to be polite by mitigating(缓解,减轻,平静)the imposition, which is face-threatening.2. The first imperative is a general grammatical form, but the second, though still an imperative, can be used to sound more polite because of the addition of will you3. (in the office)Boss: Come to my office later.Clerk: Yes, sir.-(during the afternoon tea)Boss: How is your dad, Tom?Clerk: Hes fine. Thanks, Pat.4. He wants to suggest that he did not break the window because he was engaged with (? ) in something else in other places.5. In the novel The Catcher in the Rye, Holden, a middle school student always breaks the pragmatic conventions and in that way shows his rebellion.6. While we teach English to Chinese students, we not only impart linguistic information (phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax of English) but also pragmatic information (appropriate use of English in dynamic context). For instance, how we can use the question tag(反了？tag questions) to sound more tentative and be polite.Unit 1Check your understanding1. f That is the view held by John Austin in the early stage. 2. f Implicit performative utterances do not have a performative verb.3. f 4. f The completion of the perlocutionary act requires the addressees cooperation.5. t In-Class Activities1.(1) If youve ever said “I promise” or “I apologize”, you have performed those actions by the simple act of saying them. But “I know” and “I believe” are declarative. Saying them does not bring about any immediate change in the belief or knowledge of the speaker.(2) a. I wish you a great success.I admit Im wrong.b. I misunderstand your point. I see what you mean.(3) Yes. For example, when we say “我在这里向你道歉”，we are performing the act of apologizing.(?)2.(1) “A full apology” here means a wholly performative utterance of apology like “We apologize to the Chinese government and the Chinese people”. Indeed, “sorry” is not a performative verb.(2) To some extent, “sorry” can implicitly perform the act of apology.3.(1) The kidnapper intends to perform the acts of threatening and requiring.(2) He wants to make his words sound like an advice instead of a threatening.4.(1) a. locutionary act: the act of verbally saying “Today is not a free admission day”.illocutionary act: it implicitly requires people to pay the admission fee.perlocutionary act: people pay the admission fee (if at all).b. locutionary act: the act of verbally saying “Thank you for your generous donation and your support”.illocutionary act: it implicitly urges people to donate.perlocutionary act: people donate money (if at all).a Admission fee required todayb We expect your generous donation and your supportThe first is chosen to be less imposing. The second is chosen to attract peoples donation.5. (1) No, it is not a verdictive. It is just an advertisement from s (a) hotel whose name happens to be “Jurys”.(2) The proprietor plays a game of words to attract customers.ExercisesTask 31.a. constative ? locution: “No smoking in this area”. Illocution: Forbidding people from smoking here. Perlocution: People do not smoke here.b. constative. Locution: “Ticket passengers only”. Illocution: Asking passengers to buy tickets if they want to (enter the museum). Perlocution: Passengers buy tickets to enter the museum.c. constative. Locution: “Token vending machine”. Illocution: Informing the public of the fact that they can buy tokens through this machine. Perlocution: People buy tokens through this machine (if at all).2.Yes. It solves the problem that constatives can indeed be regarded as implicit ways of doing things. Thus, all utterances are “performative” in essence.Yes, I agree. Suppose A said to B “its stuffy here”. The actual effect may be that A is understood to be complaining, but the intended effect is that someone should open the window or the door and it may bring B to perform the act instead of letting him just listen to As complaint.3. (1)a, (2)a, and(3)a are performative utterances and can stand the test “hereby”. However, in (1)b, (1)c and (2)b, (2)c, “know” , “think”, “amuse” and “flatter” are not performative verbs. In (3)b, the third person subject is used. In (3)c, simple past tense is used.4. Both verdictives and exertives involve a demonstration of powers, rights, or influence. However, verdictives have the illocutionary force of issuing a formal or official judgment and giving a verdict, while exertives involve making decisions in favor of or against a certain course of action, or advocacy of it. 5. These utterances are not true or false, that is, not truth-evaluable. The uttering of them on formal occasions is or is part of the doing of a certain kind of action, the performance of which, again, would not normally be described as just “saying” or “describing something (cf. Austin 1962, 5).e.g.“This meeting is now adjourned.”“The court is now in session.”“This church is hereby de-sanctified.” 批准,认可,使合法化Unit2Check your understanding1. f It is criticized as lacking criteria for classification.2. f The hearer is held responsible.3. f 4. t 5. fIn-Class Activities1.(1) No, they are essentially directives.(2) “你能帮我还书吗，谢谢哦。”“Well be very grateful for your presence.”(3) Because they expect other peoples compliance instead of refusals. One feels indebted感激的, 受惠的, 蒙恩的if one does not comply with the request.2. (1) Commissives (2) Yes. The second promise is achieved with a condition which may turn the promise (a commissive) into a requirement (a directive).3.(1) No. Utterance a is a threat. Utterance b involves something that the speaker cannot xcontrol. Utterance c describes something in the past rather than something that the speaker will do in the future. Utterance d involves an act that the hearer rather than the speaker will do in the future. Utterance e has a third person as the subject. Utterance f is a statement about something that happened in the past. (2) a. propositional content condition (what is said is about something that the speaker has done wrongly); b. sincerity condition (the speaker is serious or sincere in making the apology; c. preparatory conditions (e.g. the person who is apologizing should have made mistakes) d. essential condition (both sides understand that what the speaker says is an apology).Zhang: 这件事你不应这样处理的。Li: 好嘛，算我错了行了吧。where the speaker is not sincere4.(1) The customer when he says there is a fly in my soup (which is meant to be a complaint).(2) Because saying that can normally attract the waiters attention and the waiter knows what to do in a context like this. Yes. Sometimes, we speak indirectly to save our or others face.(3) Yes, I agree with her. Hearing the customers words, the waiter may not take it seriously (if he is not joking).5. (1) The role of the underlined part is explaining the reason of the refusal so that Andy will accept Jacks refusal more readily.Not necessarily. A white lie also does the same trick.(2) a. Calling on people to save water.b. Denying people the right to park here.The “irrelevant” information is used to enhance the chances of successfully performing the directive acts.ExercisesTask3.1. a. Austin was a leading exponent of analytical or Ordinary Language philosophy. His work in the 1950s provided both a theoretical outline and the terminology for the modern study of speech acts developed subsequently. He was the initiator of the speech act theory. He drew the distinction between constative utterances and performative utterances, although he latter discarded the distinction. He introduced the trichotomy of locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. John Searle is widely noted for his contributions to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and social philosophy. Searle has introduced the notion of indirect speech act. He has reclassified illocutionary acts. He has developed the theory into a general theory about human communication.b. Speech act sequence; responsive acts.2. No. Threatening seems to be a directive as well as a commissive act.Open.3.Learn how to do speech acts in L2. Doing the same speech act in L1 and L2 may not be the same.4.Depends on whether the sincerity condition is violated or not.5.a. declaration b. representative c. representative d. directive e. expressive f. commissive g. directive h. commissive i. declaration6. “Excuse me” is usually used to interrupt other people, so its preparatory condition is that there are others talking about or doing something, when the speakers interruption is not expected. However, “sorry” is used in a different situation, and its preparatory condition is that the speaker has made a mistake. 7.Effectiveness: abcd other things being equalPoliteness: abcd other things being equal8.a. It runs counter to the preparatory condition that the door must be closed at the moment.b. It goes against the sincerity condition. It is felicitous as an act of thankingc. It goes against the preparatory condition that what the speaker is going to do must be to the hearers disadvantage yet refusing to eat dissert is not.Unit 3Check your understanding1. f2. f 3. f 4. f 5. fIn-Class Activities1(1) a. direct answer about his fathers profession b. His father can help.c. His father cannot help.(2) A: Your father must be very great. B: He is a lawyer. -A: Does your father earn a lot of money B: He is a lawyer.2.(1) Both of them are implicit rather than stated by the actual meaning of the words.(2) An implicature can be part of sentence meaning or dependent on conversational context, and can be conventional or unconventional. But connotation is conventional and attached to words.(3) “Fox” can connote cunningness. When we say “he is a fox” in response to “what do you think of Jack?”, we indicate that Jack is cunning like a fox.3. (1) Yes, it implies that Jack has one and only one brother.(2) Entailments are true whenever the statement uttered is true, but different implicatures may be derived when the sentence is used in different contexts.No.Yes. For instance, Jack has a brother; indeed, he has two.(3) A: Jack must be spoiled by his parents.B: Jack has a brother.4. (1) cancelability or defeasibility.(2) Yes. The words “not yet” has the conventional implicature that something is possible after the given time.5. (1) Jack may refill his car in the garage.(2) Yes, the garage may be closed at the moment.(3) a. The sea foods are fresh. / Do buy the sea foods. b. You can win here. /Play here.6.(1) Hearer meaning is the hearers understanding of the speakers utterance.(2) A: Tom is quite clever in that aspect. B: I agree. Hes the cleverest person Ive ever seen. A: But I dont mean he is really clever in that aspect.(3) a. Hearers and speakers background knowledge may be different. b. Their expectations, beliefs, and the like may be different.Exercises Task31.a. There is convention of usage in natural language.b. Today I declare you husband and wife.He is at sixs and sevens.2. A: Are you happy. B: Yes. A: Are you happy? B: Yes. Quite, quite. There are other possibilities. E.g. Speakers mean less than what they say. A: Are you happy. B: Yes. I am the happiest person in the world.3. Saying does not necessarily amount to the same thing as meaning. By saying one thing a speaker might mean another thing entirely. There is a sense of saying on which you cant say anything without meaning something.4.A: She is a charming lady. I mean only when she smiles. By saying the first sentence, A may imply he is attracted by the lady, but by adding the second sentence he denies the implicature. 5. No. Yes. a. Jack: Lets go out drinking tonight. Jane: My grandma is ill. (But, my mother is coming)b. Jack: How did Philip and Pike do in the Olympics? Jane: Philip won a medal.Obviously, a has a particularized implicature and b has a generalized implicature. It is comparatively easy to add a sentence to a to cancel the implicature, but in b it is difficult. Anyhow, we use other ways to achieve the same implicatures in a and b. Whats more, particularized implicatures are more unconventional and they have greater indeterminacy.6.a. conventional (theres no need for context information) One cannot use the door before 6 p.m. (“before”)b. Conventional No free refills for non-same visit (“only”)7. openOne may say no, though. Conversational implicature is context dependent. To some extent, it is arbitrary, because different people may get different implicatures even in the same context and different contexts may generate different implicatures as well.8. A. when people talking about boys qualities. B. When people are talking about boys ability to do mathematics.9.Conversational implicatures are sensitive to context and dependent on the observance of Cooperative Principle while flouting a particular maxim. People may arrive at different conversational implicature for the same utterance. The conclusions arrived at by syllogism are context free and people get the same conclusion be means of reasoningUnit 4Check your understanding1. f2. f 3. f 4. f 5. fIn-Class Activities1.(1) Both metaphors and irony go against the maxim of quality that requires the speaker to be truthful. A metaphor involves saying that one thing is another and an irony consists in the expression of ones meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite. (2) Understatement (“Its not too bad”) is a form of speech in which a lesser expression is used than what would be expected; hyperbole (“Havent seen you for ages”) is a figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated. Their use runs counter to the maxim of quantity as well as that of quality.2.(1) Yes, the maxim of manner is exploited. Mr. Bennet implicates that he will let his wife tell him who has taken the house. Also, the maxim of quantity is violated when Ms. Bennet responds to her husbands question “Is he married or single?”(2) By saying I have no objection to hearing it, Mr. Bennet means that his wife has the freedom to supply the information in front of him, which in turn means he agrees to listen to his wife although he is not enthusiastic about it.(3) The author implies that Mrs. Bennet is very enthusiastic to tell other people things even at a small hint of agreement.3.(1) One may be only superficially relevant in terms of the literal meaning; one can also be interactionally relevant in terms of the illocutionary goal.(2) Yes, it may run into similar trouble. It is difficult to define be brief, obscurity of expression, and be orderly. Brevity and orderliness are matters of degree.4.(1) a. quality b. quantity c. relation d. manner(2) Quality E.g.: I am not so sure, but. C: 事情可能是这样的。 Quantity Its going to be a long story. 说来话长。Relation By the way, 顺便说一句，Manner To put it differently, . 不妨换个说法，5.(1) The Maxim of Quality is moral in nature, while the other three are not. (2) No, he was concerned with what people had said implicitly instead of how they should talk. 6.(1) A. Manner Implicature: Visitors are supposed to pay to get in. B. Quality Implicature: People must work hard, if they want to earn a lot of money.(2) Yes, but the advertising discourse violates the maxims more often because they intend to attract peoples attention through it. The ad goes against the maxim of quantity and manner underinformative; not perspicuous.Exercises Task31. When interlocutors are in conflict in some way. 2. Yes, sometimes if you are overinformative, you may be irrelevant. Yes, I agree. It is moral in nature.3. Politeness. If we treat politeness as a form of cooperativeness.4. (1) Relation Implicature: I dont want to lend it to you./I havent finished my homework.(2) Quantity Implicature: I have no brothers.(3) Relation Implicature: I dont want to play tennis.(4) Relation Implicature: I dont want to eat oysters.5. (1) The speaker just admits he went out last night, but he doesnt answer where he had been.(2) The speaker just gives an answer in a general way, although the other one wants to know his specific job.(3) The Chinese word phrase ji guang is too general.Yes, there are some patterns these responses share, e.g. all of them provide only general information, less informative than what the interlocutor expects.6. Newspapers, literary works and so on.7. Yes , I think so. For example, Chinese tend to consider the provision of extra information as generous behavior rather than invariably a deliberate act to convey implicature. 8. Yes, especially some social factors. For example when we say 他没受过教育， the factor we take for grant
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