资源描述
Linguistics ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. General Linguistics ：The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. language ：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features ：It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The scope of linguistics：The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）1.宽式音标Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互补分布complementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 14.爆破音stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 1.词素Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由词素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生词缀Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.词干Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形态学规则Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m)- 11.后缀Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 1.句子sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语言运用Linguistic competence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓语Predicate The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定式子句Finite Clause A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C) In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句Matrix Clause In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. 7.层次结构Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语法关系Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9.句法类型Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 10.表层结构S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深层结构D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍语法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. 13.移动 规则Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位Syntactic movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.X标杆理论X-bar theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”（Spec）X(Compl). 1.命名论The naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. 2.意念论The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3.语境论Conceptualism Its based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. 4.行为主义论Behaviorism It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 5.意义Sense Its concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. Its the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, its abstract and de-contextualized. 6.所指意义Reference It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 7.同义词Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 8.多义词Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 9.同音(形)异义Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 10.同音异义Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 11.同形异义Homographs It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n. 12.上下义关系Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 13.反义词Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 14.成分分析法Componential Analysis-分析词汇抽象意义 Its a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. 15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出 Its a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. 通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。 16.先设前提Presupposition Its a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 17.蕴涵Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.1.语境Context The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 2.言语行为理论Speech act theory Its an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. its a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory. 3.叙述句Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.; 4.行为句Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. 5.言内行为Locutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 6.言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention its the act performed in saying something. 7.言后行为 Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. its the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. 8.句子意义Sentence meaning It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. 9.话语意义Utterance meaning It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered. 10.合作原则Cooperative Principle Its proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 11.会话含义Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speakers Langue和parole的区别 U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky N.Chomsky in1950针对Saussures langue&parole提出Competence和performance 曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall-language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett Charles Hockett -design features 1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 2.how are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么? Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. 4.whats a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phonea speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要? Minimal pairtwo sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal seta group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征的语音组合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcriptiondiacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. 7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序规则Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则Deletion rule Its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。 1.语用学的几个重要的理论 言语行为理论Speech act theory 由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出 会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出; 2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle 数量 the maxim of Quantity-你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量the maxim of Quality -不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话 Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系 the maxim of relation-使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner-避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序 Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly. 3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类 阐述性Representatives-to commit the speaker to somethings being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 指令性Directives-are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例 承诺性Commissives-when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型 表达类Expressives-the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告类Declarations-the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. 5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types: The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 6.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别 Sentence meaning-abstract, decontextualized. Utterance meaning-concrete, contextualized its based on sentence meaning, its the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。 7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some cant even be restored to complete sentences1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language change All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar. 2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关 语音同化Sound assimilation Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. 规则简化Rule simplification Its a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english. 内部借用Internal Borrowing Its motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a languages grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another. 规则细化 Elaboration It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. 社会因素Social triggers 文化转移Cultural transmission
展开阅读全文