精选英语国家概况复习资料Word版

英语国家概况知识点笔记Part One The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandLesson 1 UK land and people1. Names for BritainBritish Isles, Great Britain and England are all geographical names. British Isles are made up of two large islands (Great Britain and Ireland) and hundreds of small ones. England is a political division on the island of Great Britain. The United Kingdom and the UK are official names of the state. 2. Position and Borders The UKs geographical position is marked by latitude 50N in Southern England and by latitude 60across the Shetlands. The UK is bordered on the south by the English Channel, which separates it from the continent of Europe. It is bordered on the east by the North Sea separating it from Belgium and Holland, and bordered on the west by the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean separating it from Ireland. Its only land border with another nation is between Northern Ireland and Ireland. 3. Political Divisions of BritainEngland (London), Scotland (Edinburgh), Wales (Cardiff) (on the Great Britain) and Northern Ireland (Belfast) England is the largest, most populous, and wealthiest division of the United Kingdom. This English dominance is such that many people use “England” to refer to the whole United Kingdom. This is not only incorrect, but may annoy people from other parts of the UK. Scotland is the second largest of the four nations both in area and population. Before Scotland formally joined the Union with England in 1707, it had been a unified state independent of the UK for a long time. Wales is the smallest among the three nations on the island of Great Britain. Wales has been dominated by England since its union with England in 1536. Northern Ireland is the smallest both in area and population among the four nations of the UK. Since 1801, Ireland had been part of the United Kingdom. In 1922, the Irish Free State declared its independence, leaving only six northeastern counties inside the Union to be called Northern Ireland. Under an accord in 1998, a semi-autonomous government was established mid-2000 in this region. 4. The Highland Zone The highland zone is an area of high hills and mountains in the north and west that are frequently broken by valleys and plains. Scotland, Wales and parts of England are located in this zone. The highest point here as well in Britain is Ben Nevis at 1,343 meters. The Pennine Chain: “backbone of England”, is a massive upland area extending north to south across England, starting on Englands border with Scotland and ending in the central England. 5. The Lowland Zone The lowland zone in the south and east consists mostly of rolling plains. Most of Britains population lives densely in the lowland zone, which covers most of England. The metropolis of London and most of Britains large cities are located in the lowland zone. 6. Rivers and Lakes The UKs longest river, the Severn, is 338 km in length, beginning in Wales and entering the Atlantic Ocean near Bristol in England. The second largest but the most important river is the Thames, which flows through Oxford and London. Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is the largest lake in the country. Lake District comprises 15 major beautiful lakes and has become a popular tourist destination. 7. Climate The overall climate in England is called temperate maritime. This means that it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0oC in winter and not much higher than 32oC in summer. It also means that it is damp and is subject to frequent changes. The changeability of weather helps the British become more adaptable, and the frequent drizzles and gloomy skies make the British tend to suffer SAD. 8. Ethnic Composition In historic times migrants from the European mainland joined the indigenous population of Britain during the Roman Empire and during the invasions of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Normans from Northern and Western Europe. The Irish have long made homes in Great Britain. Many Jews arrived in Britain toward the end of the 19th century and in the 1930s. The large immigrant communities from the West Indies and South Asia date from the 1950s and 60s. 9. Demographic Composition Compared to the rest of the world, the UK has a smaller percentage of younger people and a higher percentage of older people. Life expectancy in 2005 was 75.94 years for men and 80.96 years for women. England is the most populated part of the United Kingdom, with four-fifths of the UK population residing in England. The UK population is overwhelmingly urban, with 89.4 percent living in urban areas and 10.6 percent living in rural areas. 10. Linguistic Composition Today English is the official language of the United Kingdom and is the first language of the vast majority of its citizens. Of the surviving languages, the earliest Indo-European language to arrive was the Celtic, from which Irish, Welsh and Scottish Gaelic, among others, have developed. Of these, Welsh, closely tied to the cultural nationalism of Wales, is the strongest. 11. Class Structure British society is traditionally class conscious. Middle classes constitute about 60 per cent of the population. 12. The British Identity Regardless of nationality, ethnic background, religion, language, area, sex or age, citizens in the United Kingdom still share identification with Britain, or “Britishness”. Dimensions Representing “Britishness”（8） Geography ,National symbols, People ,Values and attitudes, Cultural habits and behavior , Citizenship , Language , Achievements Lesson 2 UK history 1. Prehistoric Times The Neolithic Age (which began from around 4,400 BC) and the Stonehenge near Salisbury: The Celts were tribes that invaded from Europe after about 800 BC. They had covered most of the British Isles by 500 BC. 2. RomanBritainThe first Roman invasion of the lands took place in 55 BC under war leader JuliusCaesar. The first successful invasion took place in the summer of AD 43. Romans built the network of straight roads across the country. They pushed north into Scotland and built Hadrians Wall, to control the frontier. Christianity was brought to Britain by Romans. 3. Anglo-Saxon BritainAngles, Saxons and Jutes invaded England in about AD 449. The Anglo-Saxons eventually formed seven separate kingdoms known as the Heptarchy in south England. King Arthur is believed to have been a Romano-Briton warrior who fought against these attackers. From about AD 793, the Vikings began to invade Britain. In 1066 when Edward the Confessor died, Harold ascended the throne which was also claimed by William of Normandy. Harold was defeated by William in October at Hastings. 4. NormanBritainTo consolidate his power, William the Conqueror strengthened and enlarged the system of feudal relations. HenryII (1154 -1189) was the founder of Plantagenet and undertook an expedition to Ireland. The legend of Robin Hood is based on the period during which Richard I was away from England fighting the Third Crusade. 5. Decline of Feudalism King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta to impose legal limits on the Kings personal powers in 1215. During HenryIIIs reign, Simonde Montfort summoned the first elected Parliament in 1265. This set the scene for the so-called “Model Parliament” of 1295 adopted by Edward I. In 1282, King Edward I finally conquered Wales. In the 14th century conflicts between England and France inevitably led to wars which intermittently spanned from 1337 to 1453, known as the Hundred Years War. By ending Englands status as a power on the continent, it led the English to expand their reach and power at sea. Wars of the Roses were staged between the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne. The war ended with the victory of the LancastrianHenryTudor and the founding of the House of Tudor. 6. Reformation In 1527 HenryVIII pursued a divorce from Catherine to marry AnneBoleyn, but Pope ClementVII denied him an annulment. The Reformation allowed Henry to marry Anne in 1533 and more importantly established himself head of an independent Church of England. Elizabeth I settled religious issue which had divided the country since HenryVIII by balancing the interests of the Puritans (radical Protestants) and “die-hard” Catholics, and established the Church of England. 7. Renaissance: The Elizabethan Era witnessed the English Renaissance, the cultural and artistic movement. Poets: EdmundSpenser and JohnMilton; Playwrights: ChristopherMarlowe and WilliamShakespeare; Philosophers: SirThomasMore and SirFrancisBacon8. Civil War King of Scotland, JamesVI, of the House of Stuart, succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I and ascended the thrones of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland. Charles I (1625-1649), son of James I, inherited from his father the belief in Divine Right kingship, which led to a serious break between Charles and his English Parliament, and eventually to war known as the English Civil War, or English Revolution. The Civil War led to the trial and beheading of Charles I in 1649, the exile of his son CharlesII, and the replacement of the English monarchy with the Commonwealth of England in 1649. p29para3 9. Restoration The Commonwealth was declared in 1649 and OliverCromwell became the Lord Protector (1653-1658). The pro-royal Convention Parliament invited CharlesII to return to England. CharlesII accepted the invitation and restored the House of Stuart. The unwillingness to accept the implications of this dependency had some part in bringing about the deposition (1688) of JamesII, who was hated as a Roman Catholic as well as a suspected absolutist. The Convention Parliament invited William and Mary to rule England jointly. This is the Glorious Revolution. WilliamIII and MaryII (1689-1694) agreed to a Bill of Rights (1689) that gave political supremacy to Parliament and severely limited the king or queens power, which marked the beginning of the constitutional monarchy in England.10. Georgian BritainUnder Queen Ann (1702-14), the Act of Union received Royal assent in 1707, abolishing England and Scotland as separate kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain with a single Parliament. The Act of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process, and created a new state “The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland”. The crucial development of the Industrial Revolution was the use of steam for power, and the greatly improved engine (1769) of JamesWatt marked the high point in this development. 11. Victorian BritainQueen Victoria had the longest reign in British history, and the cultural, political, economic, industrial and scientific changes that occurred during her reign were remarkable. In 1838, the “working class” staged the Chartist movement to urge reform in parliament election, including universal manhood suffrage. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was the first Worlds Fair that showcased the greatest innovations of the century including photography, among other things. At its height in the late 19th and early 20th century, the British Empire included territories on all continents, comprising about one quarter of the worlds population and area. 12. Britain in the Two World Wars Britain declared war on Germany in early August 1914, supported by soldiers from the dominions and colonies of the British Empire. In 1931 the Statute of Westminster officially recognized the independent and equal status under the crown of the former dominions within a British Commonwealth of Nations, thus marking the advent of free cooperation among equal partners. In 1936 there was the shock of the abdication of EdwardVIII who wished to marry American divorcee Mrs.WallisSimpson. In response to Hitlers military expansion, British Prime Minister Chamberlain had adopted an appeasement policy to try to avoid a European war. Britain fought back, very much inspired by the newly appointed Prime Minister WinstonChurchill, who was an eloquent orator. 13. Britain since WWIIBeginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. The 1970s and 80s saw the UKs integration into the European Economic Community. The Irish Republican Army took the issue of Northern Ireland to Great Britain, maintaining a prolonged bombing campaign on the island. The UK entered a war in 1982 with Argentina over the FalklandsIslands. The UK victory highly elevated Thatchers image. Blair was the only Labour Prime Minister to win three consecutive elections from 1997 to 2007. Lesson 3UKgovernment and politics1. The ConstitutionTheUKhas no written constitution in any one document; it is only partly written and contained in multiple documents. The constitution consists of: (1) statute law; (2) common law; (3) conventions; (4) ancient documents.Characteristics of British Constitution: (1) Constitutional monarchy; (2) Parliamentary supremacy; (3) Representative democracy; (4) The rule of law.2. The MonarchyIn addition to being the Sovereign of theUnited Kingdom, The King or Queen is Head of State of 15 other realms and Head of the Commonwealth. In theory the monarch has enormous powers, but given the nature of the constitutional monarchy, in reality those powers are limited and the Crown follows the dictates and advice of the ministers in Parliament. The monarch is supposed to reign but not rule. The real work of the monarchy consists largely of signing papers. The monarch has the right, however, to be consulted on all aspects of national life and review all important government documents.3. ParliamentParliament comprises three parts: the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. The main functions of Parliament: (1) to examine proposals for new laws; (2) to scrutinize government policy and administration; (3) to debate the major issues of the day. Bills may be introduced into either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, except for financial bills, which may be introduced only in the House of Commons. Each bill is given three separate readings in each house. If passed on the third reading, it is sent to the other house, where it goes through the same procedure. If passed by the second house, the bill is sent to the monarch for the ceremonial formality of royal assent before becoming law. The House of Commons is elected roughly every five years and is dissolved by the Crown on the advice of the prime minister, who then calls a general election. The House of Lords today is more a place of discussion and debate than one of power, and it normally passes legislation already approved by the House of Commons. Its members are not elected.The Lords have the right to delay legislation, and may delay bills for up to from a month to about a year.4. Central GovernmentTheUKgovernment, officially known as His (or Her) Majestys Government, is centered onWhitehallinLondon. The Prime Minister may appoint up to 20 ministers to sit in the Cabinet, all of whom must be members of Parliament. Two key doctrines of Cabinet government are collective responsibility and ministerial responsibility. The chief executive of the government is the prime minister, who is the leader of the party that holds the most seats in the House of Commons. The Prime Ministers Office, No 10 supports him or her in their role as head of government.5. Local GovernmentInEnglandandWales, local governments are divided between county councils and district councils. InScotland, services are divided between regional and district boards. Devolution: the powers of the central government over local affairs are passed down, to the Scottish and Welsh people through their own democratically elected local legislatures.6. The Political Party SystemBefore the mid-19th century, British politics was dominated by the Whigs and the Tories. After 1815, the Whigs evolved into the Liberal Party while the Tories became the Conservative Party. In 1900, the Labour Party representing trade unions was formed. Since 1945 the traditional two-party system of government in the UK Parliament has been maintained, with power being held by either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party.7. ElectionsTheUnited Kingdomis divided into 659 constituencies, each of which returns one member to the House of Commons at a general election. British citizens, and citizens of other Commonwealth countries and theRepublicofIrelandresident in theUnited Kingdom, may vote in parliamentary elections provided that they are aged 18 or over and are not disqualified. The party which wins most seats at a General Election usually becomes the Government. The largest minority party becomes the official Opposition, with its own leader and“shadow cabinet”.8. The Rule of LawEveryone is bound by the law. All persons are equal before the law. Law and order must be maintained through the officials and institutions of the state. Legal redress is provided for citizens when they feel they have experienced injustice. The law and legal processes and personnel should be independent from political interference.9. Sources of LawThe three main sources of English and Welsh law are the statute law, common law and European Union law. The main sources of law are the common law ofScotlandand legislation enacted by theUKor Scottish Parliament, and EU law. The Northern Ireland Assembly has had legislative and executive authority for all devolved matters from 2000 and can therefore make laws inNorthern Ireland.10. TheCourtSystemInEnglandandWales, minor criminal offences are heard in local magistrates courts; more serious offences are heard in the Crown Courts. InEnglandandWales, most of the civil cases are heard in county courts; the High Court hears more complicated civil cases. Both civil and criminal cases can be appealed to respective divisions in the Court of Appeals. For most legal cases inEnglandandWales, the House of Lords is the final point of appeal.11. Judicial ProceedingsThe principles derived from British law include the right to trial by jury; the right to due process of law; freedom from unlawful imprisonment; the trial system of prosecution and defence; and the presumption that a person is innocent until proven guilt.12. The Legal ProfessionThe Lord Chancellor is head of the judiciary inEnglandandWales. He recommends all judicial appointments to the Crown, other than the highest. Solicitors perform the everyday work of the law, particularly legal matters that can be handled solely with paperwork. Barristers are lawyers who have right to plead cases in court.Lesson 4UKsociety1. Economic HistoryIn the 19th century, theUKhad the worlds leading economy. In the 20th century, its economy declined but still remained relatively strong. From 1945, Labour government adopted “Keynesian” demand management, using fiscal policy to control the level of aggregate demand. Since the 1980s, and particularly under the Government of Margaret Thatcher, many state enterprises, which had been nationalised since the 1940s, were privatised. The British economy has in recent years seen the longest period of sustained economic growth for more than 150 years.2. IndustriesSince 1969, when offshore gas fields were discovered in theNorth Sea, natural gas has been used replacing coal as a fuel for generating electricity. British agriculture is very intensive, highly productive and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 percent of food needs with less than 2 percent of the labour force. The structure of industry changed substantially in the last half of the 20th century. The coal mining and cotton textile industries declined, and oil production replaced coal production as a major industry. The so-called Silicon Glen betweenGlasgowandEdinburghemploys about 40,000 people in the electronics indust