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北京外国语大学2005年硕士研究生入学考试语言学和应用语言学专业试卷Time limit: Three hoursTotal points:150All the questions are to be answered in English on the answer sheets provided.1.Examine the following two statements about language，and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.(25 points) 1) Sapir (1921:Language): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas，emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”(p.8). 2) Bloch and Trager (1942:Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates”(p.5).2.What are phonemes，phones and allophones? Explain their relationship with examples from English or Chinese.(15 points)3.Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching? (30 points)4.It has been noticed that Chinese learners of English tend to make mistakes in the marking of pas tense，even at the advanced level of proficiency. What do you think are the possible causes of this problem? How call language teachers help solve this problem and why?(30 points)5.Look at the following real newspaper headlines and explain why they are considered ambiguous. Then revise the headlines so that they Call express the intended meanings unambiguously.(20 points) (1) Complaints about NBA Referees Growing Ugly (2) Milk Drinkers Are Turning to Powder (3) Two Sisters Reunited After 18 Years at Checkout Counter (4)Enraged Cow Injures Farmer with Ax (5)Safety Experts Say School Bus Passengers Should Be Belted6.In interpreting utterances such as(1)and(2)，the hearer generally treats the events described in the two sentences in each group as causally related even though such relationship is not encoded in the meanings of the sentences. That is，the hearer tends to Think that Helen fell on the ground because of Toms pushing and that the vase broke because it was dropped. Explain why.(30 points) (1)Tom pushed Helen. Helen fell on the ground.(2)Peter dropped the vase. It broke.参考答案北京外国语大学2005年硕士研究生入学考试语言学与应用语言学专业试卷1.Examine the following two statements about language，and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.(25 points) 1) Sapir (1921:Language): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas，emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”(p.8). 2) Bloch and Trager (1942:Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates”(p.5).Similarities: 1) Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily a matter of speech because the primary medium of language is sound. Sapir illustrates this idea by implying that the produced symbols are auditory and Bloch and Trager by explicitly using the word vocal.2) Both definitions allude to the fact that the association between the words and the things that they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by using the word symbols and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on arbitrary and symbols.Differences:1) Sapirs definition emphasize that language relates to communication between human beings. It is very different from the communication systems of other creatures, such as bird songs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do not clearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a social group.2) Sapir also considers that language is non-instinctive and voluntarily produced. Thus for him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch and Tragers definition do not include this feature.3) The element system in Bloch and Tragers definition reflects the fact that language provides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances. Still elements of lacunae are combined according to rules.4) The function of language is indicated differently in two definitions. Sapir sees language as for communicating ideas, emotions and desires, while Bloch and Trager considers it for a social groups co-operation. Sapirs definition proposes communication as the principal function of language and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguely points out that language can be used for co-operation.Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis, and it not totally free from limitations. We think the two definitions grasp some defining properties of language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, for example, vocal, arbitrary, symbol, purely human, a system. But either has some limitation. As for Sapirs definition, whether one considers language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language is instinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we all acquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciously convert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in that we can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both the definitions description of languages function is not precise. Sapirs definition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires, and Bloch and Tragers definition does not point it out at all.2.What are phonemes，phones and allophones? Explain their relationship with examples from English or Chinese. (15 points)A phoneme is a minimally distinctive set of sounds in a language that can signal a difference in meaning. It is an abstract phonological unit represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. A phone is an individual phonetic unit or segment that occurs in speech. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Each of the set of phones which correspond to a single phoneme of a language is called an allophone. Phonemes are placed between slant lines (/ /) and phones are placed between square brackets ( ). Allophones of the same phoneme generally occur in different contexts and never distinguish one word from another. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound p is pronounced differently, in the word peak, the sound p is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The p sound in peak is called an aspirated ph and the p sound in speak is an unaspirated p=. There is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference dose not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. The phoneme /p/ in English can be realized as aspirated ph and unaspirated p=, which are allophones of the phoneme/p/.3. Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching? (30 points)Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world，we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study. Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speakers meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meanings; the latter is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra.（以下问题较灵活，给出参考答案）The first implication for second language study involves the appropriate use of target language. The teaching of a foreign language in a classroom involves two types of instruction: one is informational and analytical and can be diagrammed on the axis of general semantic information about the language. But language learning also has a crucially important skill component, which involves the development of the ability to use the language, actively through speaking and writing and passively through listening and reading. This is the pragmatic turn in second language teaching. The language use should be analyzed in relation to the context of communication, and that language teaching and learning should focus on the appropriate use of the target language, oral and written, according to situational and wider social context. The second implication is concerned with vocabulary learning and translation. The learning of second languages vocabularies involves the understanding and memory of their meanings. Since the differences between the first and second languages culture, there may be no corresponding meaning underlying the same sayings. Teachers should explain the different usage or implication of the target languages items. This is of much importance for cross-cultural translation practices.4. It has been noticed that Chinese learners of English tend to make mistakes in the marking of pas tense，even at the advanced level of proficiency. What do you think are the possible causes of this problem? How call language teachers help solve this problem and why? (30 points)Tenses are one of the most difficult aspects for Chinese to master because of the non-inflected nature of the Chinese language In English, the different forms of the verb can tell us whether something is happening in the present or in the past. This information is technically termed as tense. The tense is shown by adding related morphemes at the end of the verb. So the learners can judge the tense easily by looking at the different verb forms. However, the Chinese verb form does not have a well defined past, present or future tense. In writing or in speaking, the Chinese verb in the sentence does not necessarily inform the reader or listener as to whether they are referring to the past, present or future. Therefore, Chinese often places prepositional, phrases, as well as conjunctive adverbs (e.g. Mandarin Chinese le, guo) that indicate time at the front of the sentence so as to inform the speaker or the reader of the appropriate tense. The different ways of expressing the tense cause Chinese learners of English tend to make mistakes in the marking of tense. When translating into English, Chinese writers sometimes forget that English has a well-defined past/present/future verb tense. Therefore, the unconscious tendency of placing several prepositional or other phrases that indicate time at the front of the sentence is often redundant or neglect using different tense form of verb. Another factor which contributes to the difficulties is the difference in the concept of time of Chinese as compared to native speakers of English. Different concepts of time of non-native speakers with those of native speakers contribute to their difficulties in learning the English tenses. As the learning of tenses, Chinese learners are faced with a totally new set of classification of time situations that have no counterpart in their own native language. So in teaching English tenses teachers have to explain English time attributes thoroughly rather than assuming L2 learners will understand them as long as they have acquired the rules. For example, past tense is used for situations which are less probable, or more remote. A lot of Chinese do not have this concept and teachers should spend time in clarifying this to them. Teachers can also allow learners to understand the meanings of the two broad types of English and Chinese tenses and their differences in teaching Chinese learners. Through the comparison of different ways of expressing tense, the teacher can provide the students a clear framework and then students will take special notice in using verb associated with tense.5. Look at the following real newspaper headlines and explain why they are considered ambiguous. Then revise the headlines so that they Call express the intended meanings unambiguously. (20 points) (1) Complaints about NBA Referees Growing Ugly (2) Milk Drinkers Are Turning to Powder (3) Two Sisters Reunited After 18 Years at Checkout Counter (4) Enraged Cow Injures Farmer with Ax (5) Safety Experts Say School Bus Passengers Should Be Belted(1) There are two kinds of comprehension of this headline: the first is “Complaints about NBA Referees are Growing Ugly.” thus with nominal group as the subject and present tense verb is modifying complaints; the second is “ Complaints about NBA Referees Who Are Growing Ugly”, thus the whole headline is a nominal group and the present tense verb modify NBA Referees. We think the first interpretation is the intended meaning, thus the original headline is revised to “Complaints about NBA Referees Are Growing Ugly”(2) The word powder is ambiguous in meaning here, because it can imply the drug or medicine in the form of powder. Thus in order to be clear in meaning, the original headline can be revised into “Milk Drinkers Are Turing to Milk Powder” (3) There are two kinds of interpretation of this headline: the first is “ two pair of sisters reunited at checkout counter after 18 years of separation.” The second interpretation is that “two girls who are a pair of sister reunited at checkout counter after 18 years of separation.” The intended meaning should be the second, and the original headline can be revised into “ A Pair of Sister Reunited After 18 Years At Checkout Counter” (4) There are two kinds of interpretations of this headline: the first is “ Enraged Cow Injures Farmer Who Is With Ax” thus the prepositional group is modifying the compliment farmer; the second is “Enraged Cow Which Is With Ax Injures Farmer” thus the prepositional group is modifying the subject enraged cow. However, according to the common sense, the second interpretation doesnt occur naturally, and we think the first interpretation is the intended meaning. The original headline can be revised to “Enraged Cow Injures Farmer who is with Ax”.(5) The word belt is ambiguous in meaning because it can mean the act of hitting or blowing hard. Thus the original headline can be revised into “Safety Experts Say School Bus Passengers Safety Belt Should Be Tightened”6. In interpreting utterances such as (1) and (2) ，the hearer generally treats the events described in the two sentences in each group as causally related even though such relationship is not encoded in the meanings of the sentences. That is，the hearer tends to Think that Helen fell on the ground because of Toms pushing and that the vase broke because it was dropped. Explain why. (30 points) (1) Tom pushed Helen. Helen fell on the ground.(2) Peter dropped the vase. It broke.The phenomenon described can be illustrated by the theory of cohesion and coherence in text linguistics and discourse analysis. Text processing requires inferences for establishing coherence between successive sentences. Coherence is a semantic property of discourse formed through the interpretation of each individual sentence relative to the interpretation of other sentences, with “interpretation” implying interaction between the text and the reader. The property of coherence of among sentences and text are achieved partially by cohesion which is defined as the use of explicit linguistic devices to signal relations between sentences and parts of texts. These cohesive devices are phases or words that help the reader associate previous statements with subsequent ones. M.A. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that signal coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunction In the example (1), the two sentences are coherent by use of repetition of the same semantic word Helen. In comprehending the two sentences, first of all, the hearer comes across the first sentence and establishes a mental model of the events description in his mind; then when seeing the second sentence, he sees Helen again and try to relate it to what has been described in the former sentences and combine the description in the second sentence with the former one. Thus he establishes a continual mental model of events described in the two sentences. The specific relationship of these two sentences is cause-effect. Similarly, in the example (2), the two sentences are coherent by use of reference, particularly through pronouncial reference It. The hearer first comprehends and builds a mental model of events as described in the sentence, then when seeing the following pronoun, he will relate It with the former the vase, and subsequent description is corresponding to the vase. The two sentences are also cause-effect relationship.
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