项目管理专业英语课件

Typical functions include Defining/describing Classifying / categorising Giving examples Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences Expressing reasons and explanations / cause and effect The thermostat controls the temperature. The thermostat is used for controlling the temperature. The function of the thermostat is to control the temperature. The thermostat serves to (helps to) control the temperature. A thermostat is an instrument for controlling the temperature. A thermostat enables the researcher to measure the temperature accurately. Tables and Diagrams The writer does not simply add the visual presentation to the text, but includes some sort of comment. Typically the writer will include (Swales & Feak, 1994):* a few words that locate the visual presentation, * a statement that draws attention to the important features of the visual presentation, * some sort of comment on or discussion of the visual presentation. Table 3 compares the strengths and weaknesses of different methods. From the comparison, we can conclude that No one method is the best for all projects. Parkinson and Price-to-win methods are not suitable for organizations which aim to win more business. Using a combination of techniques may provide the best estimation. For example, combining top-down estimation with expert judgement and analogy methods may provide a superior result.Referring to a diagram, chart, etcAs can be seenfromthechart,.indiagram,table,graph,figures,It can be seenstatistics,that .We can see.can be seenfromthechart.indiagram.table.graph.figures.is shownstatistics.As can be seenfromTable 1,.inFigure 2,It can be seenGraph 3,We can seeFromTable 1itcanbeseenthat .Figure 2concludedmayshownestimatedcalculatedthefiguresinferredchartdiagramThe graphshowsthat .Figure 1Describing changeThere was a (n) (very)barely noticeablerise.slightincrease.slowupward tend.gradualsteadymarkeddramaticsteepsharprapidfluctuation.suddendownward trend.decrease.decline.reduction.fall.drop.There was a (n)riseof.increasedecreasedeclinereductionfalldropXincreasedby.shot upgrewrosedeclinedreduceddecreaseddroppedfellXincreasedslightlyshot upslowlygrewgraduallyrosesteadilymarkedlydramaticallysteeplysharplyrapidlydeclinedsuddenlyreduceddecreaseddroppedfellXreached a peak.levelled offFigure 1 shows the sales of mobile phones per month from the years 1998 to 2001. As can be seen, the sales of mobile phones declined slowly in the beginning months of 1998, then remained at a level of about 3000 from May until the end of the year. Entering into 1999, the sales first rose gradually, then with a steep increase at the end of the year, and reached a peak of 6,200 in February 2000. A sharp fall followed but sales levelled off at about 5,300 per month from April, fluctuating slightly through the year, and are now increasing again. The figures seem to indicate that we have recovered from the problems in mid-2000 and are on target to improve on our February 2000 peak by the end of 2002.Classifying -There are ? types/ kinds / classes / categories / sorts/varieties of ?:?.-? consists of/ comprises / can be divided into/ ? categories. These are acidic and basic.-? may be classified according to/on the basis of / depending on ?. What is the text classifying? How many types are there? What are the different types? How do we make the distinction? The chemical elements in the earths crust are classified in two major groups - metals and nonmetals. Elements are classified as metallic or nonmetallic, according to their physical and chemical properties. Metals, for example, are usually good conductors of heat and electricity; nonmetals usually are not. Most metals are malleable; they can be hammered into flat sheets; nonmetals lack this quality. Some metals are also ductile; they can be drawn out into thin wires; nonmetals are not usually ductile. Metals usually have luster, and are able to reflect light. They also have a high density. Nonmetals usually do not exhibit these properties. A few elements, such as arsenic and antimony, exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties and are sometimes referred to as metalloids. Fig. 1 “Waterfall” or Sequential Development Method vs. Iterative Development Method One of the most important reasons for the huge success of concurrent engineering is that by definition it redefines the basic design process structure that was based on a sequential design flow, sometimes called the Waterfall Model. Concurrent engineering significantly modifies this outdated method and instead opts to use what has been termed an iterative or integrated development method. The two design processes can be seen graphically in Figure 1. The Waterfall method moves in a completely linear fashion by starting with user requirements and sequentially moving forward to design, implementation and additional steps until you have a finished product. The problem here is that the design system does not look backwards or forwards from the step it is on to fix possible problems. In the case that something does go wrong, the design usually must be scrapped or heavily altered. On the other hand, the iterative design process is more cyclic in that, as mentioned before, all aspects of the life cycle of the product are taken into account, allowing for a more evolutionary approach to design. Transitional signals Transitional words are cohesive ties to connect the sentences and paragraphs so that a piece of writing moves naturally and logically.1. Time/orderat first, eventually, finally, first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second place, lastly, later, next, second, secondly, to begin with2. Comparison/similar ideasin comparison, in the same way, similarly, in contrast with3. Contrast/opposite ideasbut, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, whereas, yet, in contrast to4. Cause and effectaccordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this, consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, owing to this, since, so, so that, therefore, thus, for all the above reasons5. Examplesfor example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows6 Generalizationas a rule, generally, in general, normally, on the whole, in most cases, usually7. Stating the obviousnessafter all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally, obviously, of course, surely, in fact8. Attitudeadmittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough, undoubtedly, unfortunately9. Summary/conclusionfinally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up, in a nutshell10. Explanation/equivalencein other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise, to put it another way, specifically, to be more specific11. Additionapart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, not only.but also, too, what is more12. Conditionin that case, then, given13. Supportactually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed14. Contradictionactually, as a matter of fact, in fact15. Emphasischiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, notably, particularlyParagraphs For many years, project managers have relied on experience and the prevailing industry norms as a basis to develop cost estimate. However, basing estimates on expert judgment is problematic: This approach is not repeatable and the means of deriving an estimate are not explicit. It is difficult to find highly experienced estimators for every new project. The relationship between cost and system size is not linear. Cost tends to increase exponentially with size. The expert judgment method is appropriate only when the sizes of the current project and past projects are similar. Budget manipulations by management aimed at avoiding overrun make experience and data from previous projects questionable. Software cost estimation historically has been a major difficulty in software development. Several reasons for the difficulty have been identified: Lack of a historical database of cost measurement Software development involving many interrelated factors, which affect development effort and productivity, and whose relationships are not well understood Lack of trained estimators and estimators with the necessary expertise Little penalty is often associated with a poor estimate A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Some Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e. precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical TODAY line as shown here. Although now regarded as a common charting technique, Gantt charts were considered revolutionary when they were introduced. In recognition of Henry Gantts contributions, the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal is awarded for distinguished achievement in management and in community service. This chart is used also in Information Technology to represent data that has been collected. Gantt charts have become a common technique for representing the phases and activities of a project work breakdown structure (WBS), so they can be understood by a wide audience. Although a Gantt chart is useful and valuable for small projects that fit on a single sheet or screen, it may become quite unwieldy for projects with more than about 30 activities. Larger Gantt charts may not be suitable for most computer displays. A related criticism is that Gantt charts communicate relatively little information per unit area of display. That is, projects are often considerably more complex than can be communicated effectively with a Gantt chart. Although project management software can show schedule dependencies as lines between activities, displaying a large number of dependencies may result in a cluttered or unreadable chart. Gantt charts only represent part of the triple constraints (cost, time and scope) of projects, because they focus primarily on schedule management. Moreover, Gantt charts do not represent the size of a project or the relative size of work elements, therefore the magnitude of a behind-schedule condition is easily misconcepted. If two projects are the same number of days behind schedule, the larger project has a larger impact on resource utilization, yet the Gantt does not represent this difference. The method of constructing the network is important for the application of other complex planning technologies such as PERT and CPM. Project Networks Project networks consists of a number of nodes and a number of arcs. There are two alternatives for presenting project networks. Activity-on-arc (AOA): Each activity is presented as an arc. A node is used to separate an activity from each of its immediate predecessors. Activity-on-node (AON): Each activity is represented by a node. The arcs are used to show the precedence relationships. AON vs. AOA AON are considerably easier to construct than AOA. AON are easier to understand than AOA for inexperienced users. AON are easier to revise than AOA when there are changes in the network. The critical path method (CPM) or critical path analysis, is a mathematically based algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. It is an important tool for effective project management. The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly abbreviated as PERT, is a model for project management designed to analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project. It is commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method or CPM. PERT was developed primarily to simplify the PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was developed in 1957 to support the projects. It was developed in 1957 to support the U.S. Navys Polaris nuclear submarine project. It U.S. Navys Polaris nuclear submarine project. It was able to incorporate uncertainty by making it was able to incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is more of an event-oriented activities. It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in projects where time, oriented, and is used more in projects where time, rather than cost, is the major factor. rather than cost, is the major factor. This project model was the first of its kind, a This project model was the first of its kind, a revival for scientific management, founded by revival for scientific management, founded by Frederick Taylor and later refined by Henry Ford. Frederick Taylor and later refined by Henry Ford. DuPont corporations critical path method was DuPont corporations critical path method was invented at roughly the same time as PERT.invented at roughly the same time as PERT. In the following example there are seven tasks, labeled A through G. Some tasks can be done concurrently (A and B) while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (C cannot begin until A is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate (O), the most likely or normal time estimate (M), and the pessimistic time estimate (P). The expected time (TE) is computed using the formula (O + 4M + P) 6.39 A PERT chart is a tool that facilitates decision making During project execution, however, a real-life project will never execute exactly as it was planned due to uncertainty. It can be ambiguity resulting from subjective estimates that are prone to human errors or it can be variability arising from unexpected events or risks. And Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) may provide inaccurate information about the project completion time for uncertainty. This inaccuracy is large enough to render such estimates as not helpful. Advantages(merits) Disadvantages(limitations, demerits) Bar Chart A method of integrating the project activities, a means of recording the actual project process, a way to com pare the actual progress with the planned with visual effectiveness and sim plicity of construction, Lies in its sim plicity, not appropriate for large and com plex projects. CPM Allows for the inclusion of resources related to each activity, continuous monitoring of the schedule, alerts the project m anager to the possibility that non-critical activities m ay be delayed beyond their total float. Flexibility. Connection with PE RT Resource bottlenecks may cause a previously shorter path to become the longest or most resource critical path, preciseness PERT Incorporates uncertainty without precise inform ation about the activities, facilitates decision m aking while the planner decides which milestones should be PERT events and also decides their “proper” sequence, applicable when m ultiple tasks are going sim ultaneously to reduce the redundancy -There can be potentially hundreds or thousands of activities and individual dependency relationships -T he network charts tend to be large and unwieldy requiring several pages to print and requiring special size paper. -The lack of a timeframe on most PERT/C PM charts m akes it harder to show status although colours can help (e.g., specific colour for com pleted nodes)