资源描述
What is linguistics?什么是语言学A The definition of linguisticsLinguisticsis .ge.nerally defined_as,the scientific study of language 对语言进行的科学研究 )Process of lin guistic study:1Certa in lin guistic facts are observed, gen eralizati on are formed;2Hypotheses are formulated;3Hypotheses are tested by further observati ons;4A lin guistic theory is con structed.B The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics 普通语言学：the study of language as a whole 从整体研究1.Phonetics：the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic mediuof lan guage) (How speech sounds are produced and classified):is esse ntially the descriptio n of the systems and patter ns of speech sounds in alan guage.(How sounds form systems and fun cti on to convey meaning) 3.Morphology :the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are comb ined to formwords)4.S yn tax: the study of those rules that gover n the comb in ati on of words to form permissible senten ces(how morphemes and words are comb ined to form senten ces)5.Sema ntics：the study of meaning in abstract ion 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in con text of useSocioli nguistics: the study of lan guage with refere nee to society Psycholi nguistics: the study of lan guagewith refere nee to the work ings of the mind Applied lin guistics: the applicatio n of lin guistics prin ciples andtheories to lan guage teachi ng and lear ning An thropological li nguistics, n eurological li nguistics;mathematical li nguistics; mathematical li nguistics;computati on al li nguisticsC Some importa nt disti ncti ons in lin guistics1Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性2Sy nchro nic vs. Diachro nic共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)The description of a Ianguage at someoint in time;The description of a Ianguage as it changethrough time.3Speech and writi ng言语与文字Spoke n Ian guage is primary, not the writte n4Lan gue and parole语言和言语Proposed by Swiss lin guistsF. de Sausse(sociological)Chapter 1Introduction2.Phonology2Lan gue: refers to the abstract li nguistic system shared by all the members of a speech com mun社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole: refers to the realizatio n of Ian gue in actual us（指语言在实际运用中的实现）5Compete nee and performa nee语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the America n lin guistN. Chomsky （psychological）Competence：the idal user s knodgof the rules of his Ianguage. （理想的语言使用者关于语言规 则方面的知识）Performa nee: the actual realizatio n of this kno wledge in lin guistics com muni cati on.（这种知识在语言- _ ， : 、 : _ i I .一 -交流中的具体实现）What is language? 什么是语言A The defi niti on of Ian guage性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。）a） System: comb ined together accordi ng to rules （根据规贝 U 组合在一起）b） Arbitrary: no in tri nsic connection betwee n a lin guistic symbol and what the symbol sta nds for（语言符号和 符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c） Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d） Human: Ianguage is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的）B Design features （unique properties） : the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）1Arbitrari ness （任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form （either sound or word） and its meaning.While Ianguage is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽 然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a）echo of the sounds of objects oractivities ono matopoeic words（拟声词）b）some compo und words （某些复合词）2Productivity （能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by itsusers. （Creativity or ope n-en ded ness）Duality | （双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure ofsounds which are meanin gless. The higher level is morpheme or word （double articulation!）语言是一 -个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着 意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）4Displacement （跨时空性，移位性）Lan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situati ons of the speaker （refer topast and future time and to other locations）5Cultural tran siti on （文化传递性）it 指 一个话语Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on.（语言是一个具有任意3While human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis （everyone was born with the ability to acquire a Ianguage）, the details of any Ian guage system are not gen etically tran smitted, but in stead have to be taught Wndlearnt.The above 5 properties may be take n as the core features of huma n Ian guage.欢迎下载欢迎下载4Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学A Te defi niti? n of phon etics(语音学)Phonetics：the study of the phonic medium of Ian guage: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in theworld s Ianguag 是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音)Articulatory phonetiT the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.发音语音学)Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the a(听觉语音学) Auditory(or perceptual) phonetics|: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds 声学语音学)B Orga ns of speech (发音器官)Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced (Voicing): 浊音 when the vocal cords 声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes themapart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels 元音 are typically voiced (voicing).The importa nt cavities:The phary ngeal cavity 咽腔The oral cavity 口腔The n asal cavity 鼻腔其他部位：Lips 唇 1, teeth 齿 2, teeth ridgeveolus 齿龈 3, hard palate 硬腭 4, soft palate (velum)软腭 5, uvula小舌 6, tip of tongue 舌尖 7, blade of tongue 舌面 8, back of tongue 舌后 9, vocal cords 声带 10C Orthographic representation of speech sounds : Broad and narrow transcriptions (语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音)IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association 国际语音协会 /国际音标)Broad transcription|: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符号)Narrow transcription| the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符)E.g.:lli:f-a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l ()lhelp-a den tal l()ppit-an aspirated p?(h表示送飞)pspit-an un aspirated p (no diacritic)nb tna syllabic nasal n()D Classificati on of En glish consonants (英语辅音的分类)In terms of manner of articulati on根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstructi on is created)1Stops 闭塞音:the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/g2Fricatives 摩擦音:the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, /3, 9/ S, (approximant)3Affricates 塞擦音:the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t / /d34Liquids 流音:the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts theton gue and the roof of the mouthl a lateral sound; r retroflex5Glides 滑音:w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + happroxima ntsof欢迎下载56Nasals 鼻音:the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, n欢迎下载6Phonemic contrast, comdistribution, minimal2、互补分布、By place of articulation 根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)1bilabial 双唇音:upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruct ions p/b, w (velar)2labiodentals 唇齿音：the lower lip and the upper teeth f/v3dental 齿音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth 0/4alveolar 齿龈音:the fro nt part of the ton gue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, r5palatal 腭音:tongue in the middle of the palate 0/S,t / /d3, j6velars 软腭因:the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, n7glottal 喉音:the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of En glish vowels(英语元音的分类)1The highest position of the tongue : front, central, back;2The ope nn ess of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-ope n, ope n;3The roundn ess (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except All the back vowels, except : are roun ded vowels4The length of the sound : long vowels & short vowelsLary nx(te nse) or (lax)Mon ophth on gs, diphth ongsCardi nal vowelsF The defi ngi on of pho no logy (音位学)Phoneticsis interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, ho、theydiffer from each other, what phon etic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonologyl on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular Ianguages; it aims to discoverhow speech sounds in a Ian guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to con vey meaning lin guisticcom muni catio n.G_Phone, phoneme, and allophone (音素、音位、音位变体)Phonea phone is a phonetic unit or segment (因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段)Phoneme: a phon eme is a phono logical un it; it is a unit of disti nctive value, it is an abstract un it.(音位是 一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位)Alloph onethe differe nt pho nes which can represe nt a phon eme in differe nt phon etic en vir onments arecalled the alloph ones of that pho neme.(在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变 体)in欢迎下载7occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words canbe differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme （always in the same position）, then all ofthese words con stitute a mini mal sets.I Some rules in pho no logy1sequential rules 序列规则Phon otactics of 3 con so nants occurri ng in on set 如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则:No1:_/s/第一个音位一定是/s/_voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二个音位一定是 /p/, /t/, /k/_approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是 /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2：The affricates t/,d3 and the sibilants s,z,sare0rt to be followed by another sibilants.2assimilation rules 同化规贝 UCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is calledco-articulati on.Assimilation & elision effects 元音省略Assimilati on: two pho nemes occur in seque nee and some aspect of one phon eme is take n or copied bythe otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound 鼻音化现象 deletion rule/Elisio n 省略规则Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word inisolati onE.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonan 省略词末鼻辅音前的 g音J Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）1Stress 重音Word stress & sentence stressThe stress of the En glish compo unds always on the first eleme nt2Tone 声调Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variati ons can dist in guish meaning just like morpheme 豫音素一样可以区别意义 Tone Ianguage, like Chin ese, has four to nes 汉语就是一 -种典型的声调语言， 有四个音调 Level, rise, fall-rise,fall 阴平 阳平 上声 去声3In to nation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as inton ati on.Phonemic contrast：when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguimeaning, they_ re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/（要会判断！）:two or more tha n two alloph ones of the same pho nemes are said toshComplementary distributionin complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environmerbesides they do not disti nguish meaning.:whe n two differe nt forms are ide ntical in every way except for one sound segme nt whichbet,Minimal pair欢迎下载8En glish: the four basic types of inton ati on, or the four tones 四种语调The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调9Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学A The defi niti on of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by whichwords are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）Morpheme 词素 the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素）（A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function 最小的意义单位或者语法功能 ）B Free morphemes & bound morphemes （自由词素和黏着词素）can sta nd by themselves as sin gle wordsLexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes conj.prep.art.pron.:can not no rmally sta nd alone, but which are typically attached to ano ther formDerivational morphemes 派生词素affix 词缀（suffix, infix, prefix） + root 后缀中缀 前缀 + 词根In flecti onal morphemes 曲折词素 8 types of in flecti onal morphemes in En glishNoun+ - ss possessive 所有格;plural 复数Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3dperson present singula 第三人称单数;present participle 现在分词;past tense 过去式,past participle 过去分词Adj + -er, -est comparative 比较级;superlative 最高级C Derivational vs. Inflectional派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wore 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）In flecti onal morphemes in flue nce the whole category!司的范畴;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root （stem） + derivatio nal + in flectio nal 词根 / 词干 + 派生 + 曲折D Morphological Rules 形态学规则（词的构成方式词素是怎样组合成为词）N. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overge neralizati onE Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体the actual forms used to realize morphemes:a set of morphs, all of which are versi ons of one morphemea morpheme may have alter nateshapes or phon etic forms.e.g. map-maps s dog-dogs z watch-watches iz mouse-mice ai ox-oxen n tooth-teethsheep-sheep Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. F Word-formationprocess （构词法）1Coin age the inven tio n of totally new terms （创造全新的词）2Borrow ing the tak ing over of words form other Ian guages3Compoundinga joining of two separate words to produce a single form （组成复合词）4Ble ndingtak ing over the begi nning of one word and joining it to the end of other word5Clipp inga word of more tha n one syllable reduced to a shorter form6Back formatio n a process by which new words are formed by tak ing away the suffix of an exist ing word7Conv ersi on category cha nge, functional shift8Acronyms new words are formed from the in itial letters of a set of other words欢迎下载FreemorphmesBound morphemesMorphsAllomorphs欢迎下载109Derivatio n the new words are formed by the additi on of affixes to the roots, stems, or word(添加词缀)10Abbreviati on a shorte ned form of a word or phrase which represe nts the complete form (缩短原词)Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学A The definition of syntaxSyntax: A branch of lin guistics that studies how words are comb ined to form senten ces and rules that gover nthe formation of senten ces(句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分 支)C Types of senten CSSimple sentence 简单句:consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and standsalone as its own senten ce.Coordin ate (Compo und) sentenc列(复合)句:contains two clauses joined by a lin ki ng word called coordin at ing conjunctions, such asand , by , or Complex sentence!复杂句:contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause 子句matrix clause 主句1subordi nator fun cti ons as a grammatical unit may be completeBlSome categories范畴)Syntactic categories I：refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as thesubject or the predicate 句 法范畴Lexical categories: (parts of speech 词汇范畴Major lexical categories (ope n categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux., Prep. Pron. Conj. I nt.Phrasal categories!：NP, VP, PP, AP 短语范畴C Combi natio nal rulesAre small in nu mber Yield all the possible senten cesRule out the impossible ones1phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)(短语结构规则)S NP VP(A sentence con sists of, or is rewritte n as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP(det.限定词)(Adj.) N (PP) (S)“”：包括 / 分为VP(qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S)“()”：内部的成分可以省略AP(deg 程度词)A (PP) (S)“”：可以选择附加其他补语PP (deg.)P Ni2X- bar theoryHead an obligatory word that givers the phrase its n ameXP or X-phraseXP (Specifier) X (compleme nt)Formula:X” Spec XX-bar theory (X-bar schema)XX complD Tra nsformatio nal rules 转换规贝 UD-structure and S-structure 深层结构和表层结构欢迎下载11Deep structure: the structure that correspnds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It isabstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.Surface structure: lin ear arra ngeme nt of words as they are pronounc ed. A surface structure is relativelcon crete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in com muni cati on.Two levels of syn tactic represe ntati on of a sentence structure:One that exists before moveme nt takes placeThe other that occurs after moveme nt takes placeFormal li nguistic explorati on:D-structure : phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe applicati on of syn tactic moveme nt rules tran sforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTran sformatio nal-ge nerative line of an alysisE S yn tactic Relati ons Seque ntial(s yn tagmatic) relati ons 组合关系The lin ear orderi ng of the words and the phrases with in a sentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic) relations 聚合关系)If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentenceand the result ing sentence is still grammatical, the n we say the replac ing forms and replaced forms haveparadigmatic relati ons.F Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis )IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with thissegmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemesLabeled IC an alysissyn tactic categories criteria in judgi ng syn tactic categories:1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.)2) syn tactic con texts in which the lin guistic forms can occurCategorythedeterm iner (Det.)boynoun (n.)ofte nqualifierplaysverb (v.)aDet.verydegree word (Deg)smallmodifierballn.must, shouldauxiliary (Aux.)and, but, orconj un cti on (Con.)G _The_hierarchical_structure_of sentenceA sentence can be an alyzed in to con stitue nts. Conv ersely, con stitue nts at differe nt levels can comb ine tofori欢迎下载12Senten cesare an alyzed into clausesare an alyzed into phrasesare an alyzed into wordsare an alyzed into morphemessenten cesSo traditio nally, sen ten ces are assumed to bemade of in dividual words in a lin ear direct ionChapter 5 Semantics 语义学A The defi n tion of sema nticsSema nticsrm thelinguistic Minto view （对意义的研究）回 Some views concerning the study of meaning关于意义研究的一些观点1the naming theory 命名论2the conceptualist view 概念论Symbol/Form （words）符号 / 形式3contextualism : John Firth 语境论4behaviorism Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist viewS: stimulusr: resp onseJillJackS- r.s- R（the small letters r, s speech）（the capitalized letter R, S practical events）C Sense and reference （意义和指称）Sens&is concerned with the in here nt meaning of the lin guistic form, abstract and de-c on textualized 主要涉及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）Refereneemeans what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationshipbetween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的 事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系）Moving starI once was bitte n by a dog.Morning starMind you. There is a dog over there.D Major sense relati ons （主要的意义关系）1synonymy 同义现象the sameness or close similarity of meaningsenten cesare used to buildclausesare used to buildphrasesare used to buildwordsare used to buildmorphemesRefere nt （real object）所指Thought/refere neecon cept 思想 / 指称欢迎下载13a. dialectal synonyms 方言同义词-synonyms used in differe nt regional dialects （美式 / 英式英语）b. stylistic synonyms 文体同义词- synonyms differi ng in style （问题、正式度不同）c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative mea ning 情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义）d. collocatio nal synon yms 搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）e. sema ntically differe nt synonyms 语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）2polysemy 多义现象一- one word that has more tha n one related meaning3homonymy 同音异义Homoph on es: whe n two words are ide ntical in sounc 同音异义 发音一样 Homographs: when two wordsare identical in spelling 同形异义 拼写一样 Complete homony ms: whe n two words are ide ntical both inspelli ng and in Soun（完全同音异义词4hyp onymy 下义关系-in clusive ness 包含关系The word which is more gen eral in meaning is called the superordi nat 上坐标词The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyp onym. Co-hyp onym 下坐标词5antonymy 反义词- oppositenessGradable an to nyms 等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同）Complementary antonyms 互补反义词（两个极端 dead/alive，male/female）Relati onal o
展开阅读全文