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第 15 页Vague Expressions of Quantity in EnglishPeople have many beliefs about language; an important one is that good usage involves (among other things) clarity and precision. Hence, it is believed that in languages, ambiguities, imprecision are to be avoided. This is rather too simple a view, and likely to be positively misleading as an instruction to those learning about how to use them, especially second language users of English. Most speakers of English are particularly aware of the frequency of vague language use (until it is pointed out to them) and this fact is in itself of interest. In the introduction, it will set out to introduce the general knowledge of vague language, and specifically to work towards vague expressions of quantity in the next.I. Introductions1.1 Vague Language Some language is vague, and we understand it as vague and assign vague meanings to it. But what kind of expressions and words are counted as vague language in English? 1.1.1 Definition of Vague LanguageThis paper will work with the following definition of vague language and its use.An expression or word is vague if:(1) It can be contrasted with another word or expression, which appears to render the same proposition;(2) It is purposely and unabashedly vague;(3) Its meaning arises from the intrinsic uncertainty referred to by Peirce.Peirce (1902) is often considered as the originator of the notion of vagueness in language. And he was perhaps the first to try to formulate the notion in a rigorous way, as follows:“ A proposition is vague where there are possible states of things concerning which it is intrinsically uncertain whether, had they been contemplated by the speaker, he would have regarded them as excluded or allowed by the proposition. By intrinsically uncertain we mean not uncertain in consequence of any ignorance of the interpreter, but because the speakers habits of language were indeterminate; so that one day he would regard the proposition as excluding, another as admitting, those states of things. Yet this must be understood to have reference to what might be deduces from a perfect knowledge of his state of mind; for it is precisely because these questions never did, or did not frequently, present them that his habit remained indeterminate. (1902: 748)”1.1.2 Birth of Vague Language StudyThe first savant noticed the vague phenomenon in language is Eubulides, who was a representative of Megarian School (or eristic School) in ancient Greece of 4 century B.C. He initiated the famous theory the Sorites Paradox, in which the vagueness of quantity was applied.But what regretful was that the vagueness of nature language had been neglected for more than 2300 years since Eubulides. However, it was not accidental in the consideration of the background before 19century. Ill give a brief introduction in regard to that background. There had been three Great Turns of philosophy since ancient Greece. There are the ancient Ontological Turn, the recent Epistemological Turn and the contemporary Linguistic Turn. The first two turns concerned about the reality existence and its acknowledgement, which were in the scope of Realistic. The universal attitude of philosophy at that time was completely languishing neglected. They considered language only a means of argumentation, not an independent thesis. It was not until the third Turn, arisen by G. Frege, Russell and L. Wittgenstein in 19 century, which focused on the study of language in philosophy. That was the reason why vagueness, especially vague language became the task of many distinguished linguists, such as Peirce, Russell, L. Wittgenstein as well as the contemporary linguists, E. Cassirer, William P. Alston, Israel Schaeffer, and L. A. Zaden and so on.1.1.3 Place of Vagueness in Language Study and Modern LifeVague language is an interesting and complex area of study, with considerable potent ion for further work. Interest in vagueness in language use and meaning has arisen in a number of disciplines: literary criticism, psychology, philosophy. Much of it suggests that vagueness is present in a great deal of language use, and that therefore a complete theory of language must have vagueness as an internal component. Alongside its interest, the study of vague language is equally important in its consequences for theory and practice in language studies. On the linguistic theory side, recent linguistic work on meaning has tended to broaden its scope to look more at pragmatic aspects of meaning; and the interface between semantics and pragmatics especially has received and is continuing to receive a lot of attention.Turning now to practical consequences, an understanding of vague language use in English would appear to be valuable in any field, such as teaches, analyses, mathematics, computers and logic. One obvious example is in English language teaching, where the competent L2 user of English much acquire an awareness of how to understand vague expressions, and how, when, and why to use them. It is often noticed by teaching that the English of advanced student, while grammatically, phonologically, and lexically correct, may sound rather bookish and pedantic to include appropriate vague expressions.Having looking briefly at some of the background knowledge，well see to the general notion of vague expressions of quantities.1.2 Vague Expressions of QuantitiesVague expressions of quantities form a considerable part of vague language. Whats the actualities and significance in the study of these expressions, and how do we classify them? The following introductions will provide the answers.1.2.1 Actualities in Vague Expressions of QuantitiesThe expression of quantities we have for being vague, many of which are exceedingly common and instantly recognizable, nevertheless, there is as yet no major study of vague expressions of quantities, and no generally agreed approach to it. Such work as there has being is more theoretical than descriptive, in the sense that it uses only limited numbers of invented examples to substantiate particular theoretical analyses. The followings are some famous works in which the vague expressions of quantities are included. 1 Channell, J. Precise and Vague Quantities in Academic Writing, 1990.2 Clark, D.D. “Orders of approximation to English dialogue”. Language andCommunication 1981, 1: 207-236.3 Dubois, B. L. “Imprecise numerical expressions in biomedical slide talks”.Language in Society 1987, 16: 527-41. 4 Guilbaud, G. “Mathematics and approximation”. Proceedings of the ThirdInternational Conference on Mathematics Education, 1977.5 Hurford, J. the Linguistics Theory of Numerals. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. 1975.6 Kempson, R. and Cormack, A. “Ambiguity and quantification”. Linguistics andPhilosophy 1981, 4: 259-310.7 Kennedy, G. “Quantification and the Use of English: a case study of one aspectof the learners task”. Applied Linguistics, 1987, 8/3: 264-86.8 Lakoff, G. “A note on vagueness and ambiguity”. Linguistic Inquiry, 1970, 1:357-89.9 Quirk, R. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.10 Sadock, J. M. “Truth and approximations”. Berkeley Linguistic SocietyPapers,1977, 3: 430-39.11 Sigurd, B. “Round numbers”. Language in Society, 1988, 17: 243-52.12 Wachtel, T. “Distinguishing between approximations”. Journal of Pragmatics,1981, 5: 311-22.13 Zadeh, L. A. “Foreword to Kaufmann”. Introduction to the Theory of FuzzySubsets, New York: Academic Press. 1975.1.2.2 Significance in the Study of Vague Expressions of QuantitiesFor a general approach to the study of vague expressions of quantities, there are two significances should be highlighted. One is that vague expressions of quantities are very frequently used. While more work is needed, it begins to look as though vagueness occurs more than preciseness. It is notable that vague expressions of quantities, as a proportion of language, have played an essential role in humans civilization. They are involved in many fields of human actions, for instance, business, mathematics, statistics, accounting, geography, computer, and astronomy.The second significance is that language users plainly have no particular difficulties with vague expressions of quantities. Human cognition is well set up to process vague concepts that computers have difficulty to handle. As we know, computers are much faster in calculation than human beings, whereas they are much lower in intelligence. It is somewhat because of its disability in the handling of vague expressions of quantities. If this vague theory can be well formed and applied in computer programs, the information world will be far more magnificent in the future.1.2.3 Classification of Vague Expressions of Quantities There exist a number of ways of being vague about quantities in English. In particular, speakers have the option of either adding something to a precise number or numbers, or using a round number, or using a vague quantifier. In this paper, the vague expressions of quantities will be classified as follows.(1) Vague expressions of numbers:Different meanings of number Precise numbers working as round numbersPlural numbers approximating quantities(2) Vague expressions of numbers and approximates Approximate+ Number Number + or soCombinations of approximatesHaving introduced the background knowledge of vague expressions of quantity, hereafter, the paper now is ready to move on to consideration of a variety of different vague expressions of quantities. II. Vague Expressions of NumbersThere exist a number of ways of being vague about quantities in English, and the most obvious kind of vague expressions of quantities is vague expressions of numbers. This kind of expressions is in widely use, and because the vagueness, it more or less presents some problems of interpretation to either speakers or hearers. The following part will discuss some different meanings of numbers.2.1 Different Meanings of Numbers In certain case, some numbers have definitely different meaning, Shakespeare used “Forty” in stead of “many” in some of his novels, such as, “I would beat forty of them” in “Coriolanus, iii, 1” and in “Hamlet, V, 1.” the sentence: “I loved Ophelia; forty-thousand brothers could not, with all their quantity of love, make up my sum.” Some phrases like “a thousand and one”, “a hundred and one”, “seventy times seven”, share the same meaning sometimes. And meanings of other numeral phrases like “sixty-four thousand dollars”, “a million bills”, “three penny” are also vague. Following are examples.2.1.1 Vague Expressions from “One” to “Nine”(1) One I come from a one-horse town.Meaning: I come from a small town. He always looks after number one.Meaning: He is very selfish. (2) Two Ill agree with you when two Fridays come together.Meaning: Ill never agree with you. He met her a couple of years ago.Meaning: He met her a few years ago.(3) Three Dad came home three sheets in the wind last night.Meaning: Dad was drunk when came home last night. Ill love you three score and ten.Meaning: Ill love you all my life.(4) Four The baby can goes on all fours.Meaning: The baby can crawl. Waiter, do you have Four-sales?Meaning: Waiter, do you have cheap beers.(5) Five Oh, dont let me give you bunch of fives.Meaning: Dont make me beat you. The Fifth Column was caught when the war broken up.Meaning: The spy was caught when the war broken up. (6) Six Mum, who is right, brother or I? Six of one and half a dozen of the other.Meaning: You two both made mistake. Ill go to shanghai by the six-foot way.Meaning: Ill go to shanghai by train.(7) Seven You always make my room at sixes and sevens.Meaning: You always make my room at odds. The child was in his seventh heaven with his new toys.Meaning: The child was excited with his new toys.(8) Eight You are to be behind the eight ball if you dont regret.Meaning: You are in danger if you dont regret. Im all right but one over the eight.Meaning: Im OK but a little drunk. (9) Nine Maggie was dressed up to the nines in her birthday party.Meaning: Maggie was the belle of her birthday party. Possession is nine points of the law.Meaning: Possession is in the top of the law.(10) Ten Lets take ten and go on working then.Meaning: Lets have a rest and go on working then. His failure is ten to one.Meaning: He is very likely to fail.2.1.2 Other Vague Number Expressions (1) ElevenTo arrive at the eleventh hour. Meaning: To arrive just before the dead line.(2) TwentyI have told you not to enter my room twenty times.Meaning: I have told you not to enter my room many times.(3) FiftyWe eat the cake fifty-fifty.Meaning: We eat half of the cake each.(4) SeventyThere are seventy times seven people in that shop.Meaning: There are many people in that shop.(5) Hundred People who are always happy are hundred and hundredMeaning: People who are always happy will live long. (6) Thousand Oh, now lets come to the sixty-four thousand dollars question.Meaning: Oh, now lets come to the important question.(7) MillionHer boss is a million bills.Meaning: Her boss is a serious man.Concerning the meanings of these numbers in the examples above, though they contain exact numbers, we cannot analyze them as precise but vague. Generally, the numbers in these kinds of expressions are highly relevant to the native language, and most favored by the people in fashion. The listed examples are just a small part of the vague expressions of numbers, there are still many other expressions in which numbers them have definitely different meanings.2. 2 Precise Numbers Working as Round NumbersExpressions of which, precise numbers working as round numbers, are commonly used in oral English. Even in some authoritative documents, such vague expressions are frequently seen. Hereinafter, Ill analyze them in two sections.2.2.1 Structures and Examples(1) Sam is six feet tall.(2) Sam has $10,000 in his saving account.(3) Odessa has a population of one million.The three examples above are on one reading the inherently approximations, in the sense that, for example, example (3) would not normally be considered false if the actual population of Odessa were 1,002,593. Naturally occurring examples are similar.For example:Percentage is often used in this way. Some years ago, an advertisement on British television told viewers about the household disinfectant that Kill ninety- nine percent of all household germs. Presumably, most people took this to mean “nearly all”. A joke, current at the time, added the punch line And the other one percent kills you. Other example:(4) Theyve had one that has destroyed ninety-five percent of their total, in fact ninety-five percent of their total stock.The speaker did not really know exactly how much stock was lost, he wanted rather to stress that it was most of it. In these examples, hearers or readers infer, I think, from the context supplied by the speaker or writer, which the quantities given are not to be taken as exact. It appears that one reason why we interpret these numbers as approximations is because they are round numbers in our number system.2.2.2 Meaning Analysis For the examples, which are not culturally defined, one question is what triggers the vague as opposed to the exact reading. One factor is obviously whether or not the number is round. Consider these invented examples:(1) Sam is five feet eleven and a half tall.(2) Sam has $9,873 in his savings account.(3) Odessa has a population of 1,002,493.I submit that it is (at least) very hard to get a reading of these where they are vague, whereas we have seen that the similar examples (1) to (3) at the beginning of this chapter are quite normally judged as being vague. The reason is that the three examples above do not contain what we think of as round numbers. Clearly, the presence of a round number is good indication that a vague reading is intended. Further, Menninger (1969) suggests: “the numbers which are more likely to be institutionalized as vague quantities are round numbers”. In addition, as has been mentioned, context and world knowledge are important in deciding whether an exact or a vague quantity is being given.However, the situation is more complicated than just saying that round numbers are used as approximations. It is also the case that what counts as round varies from situation to situation. Much depends on the purpose of the utterance in which a number occurs, as to whether it is perceived as an approximation, or as exact. Here again, we will consider Wachtels (1981) examples and analysis, Compare:(4) Sam has $10,000 in his savings account.(5) Sam has $9,873 in his savings account.Of which Wachtel says: 10,000 is a round number and 9,873 is not. If we are measuring Sams wealth to the nearest thousand dollars, but 9,873 is a round number if we are measuring his wealth to the nearest dollar, his account may actually contain exactly $9,873.91.2.3 Plural Numbers Approximating QuantitiesThe third way of using the number names of English to approximate quantities is to use one of the number names in the plural.2.3.1 Examples and Structures (1) Do you have to fill in hundreds of forms before you go?(2) And after all, its our money; its the taxpayers money because were keepingBritish Rail afloat with hundreds of millions of pounds subsidy a year.It is very obvious from examples like these that once again, the rules for vagueness in this way depend on the structure of the base ten number system, and that only the names for a rather restricted set of reference point numbers is involved. The followings, for example, are not possible:(3) Twenty sixes of students arrived.(4) Ive told him fifteens of times.The number names, which can be used in this way in English, are normally the following: hundred, thousand, million, billion, decade, dozen and score. In addition, some combinations are possible to give other quantities, for example:Tens of thousandsHundreds of thousandsThousands of millionsTens of billionsOf these, hundreds of thousands seems to be particularly favored. The following combinations do not occur in the spoken corpus, though there appear to be no logical reasons why they should not be possible:Hundreds of billionsThousands of billionsMillions of billions 2.3.2 Meaning Analysis Concerning the meaning of these plural numbers, since they contain no exact number, we cannot analyze them as designating intervals of exact numbers. They are more vague than “round number” approximations (except where these are used to exaggerate). To see this, consider the following conversation: (1) M: Itll cost a lot. A: Well, how much? M: Well, thousands of pounds. Is it really worth it?The point is that if thousands simply meant a lot, then saying it would add noting to do what M had first said, and would not provide a co-operative answer to the question. Since it was clear to both participants that the conversation was sensible, thousands must have a meaning more precise than merely a lot. The following numbers are possible analyses of each of the number names, which can be used in the plural.Hundreds more than 200, less than 1,000Thousands more than 2,000, less than 20,000Millions more than 2 million, less than a billionBillions more than 2 billion This part has shown us something rather different from what we originally knew about numbers. It can be said perhaps that we knew the meaning of the number expressions intellectually but not experientially. Hence, the study
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