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毕业设计(论文)开题报告材料1、开 题 报 告2、文 献 综 述3、文 献 翻 译题 目考研调剂信息管理系统的设计和实现学 院计算机学院专 业软件工程姓 名王敏班 级09052713学 号09052336指导教师徐向华二一二年九月杭州电子科技大学毕业设计(论文)开题报告题 目考研调剂信息管理系统的设计和实现学 院计算机学院专 业软件工程姓 名王敏班 级09052713学 号09052336指导教师徐向华一、综述本课题国内外研究动态,说明选题的依据和意义1.1 这标题的序号1.1 和(一) 感觉有问题 请查看格式要求 全文的标题序号一定有问题 老师看了一定得改管理信息系统简介MIS是Management Information System的缩写,即“管理信息系统”。它由人和计算机网络集成,能提供企业管理所需信息以支持企业的生产经营和决策的人机系统。主要功能包括经营管理、资产管理、生产管理、行政管理和系统维护等。一个以人为主导,利用计算机硬件、软件、网络通信设备以及其他办公设备,进行信息的收集、传输、加工、存储、更新和维护,以企业战略竞优、提高效益和效率为目的,支持企业的高层决策、中层控制、行间距为 固定值20 磅 后面的基本上都没调基层运作的集成化的人机系统。完整的MIS应包括:决策支持系统(DSS)、工业控制系统(CCS)、办公自动化系统(OA)以及数据库、模型库、方法库、知识库和与上级机关及外界交换信息的接口。信息系统的基本概念是建立在普通系统理论和系统科学基础之上的。这主要包括两大普通系统理论模型,即输入-过程-输出模型和系统-子系统-系统环境模型。管理信息的价值在于特定管理层把信息用于特定决策及其决策产生的效果。MIS的历史发展经历过五个变革期:(1) 大型主机和小型机数据处理(2) 个人电脑(3) 客户端/服务器网络(4) 企业技术(5) 云计算1.2 管理信息系统的国内外应用1.2.1国外应用管理信息系统软件有IBM公司的COPICS系统、NCR公司的IMCS-II系统、日本NTT公司的DIPS-1系统、前苏联ACY系统、美国MAC-CAP系统和JDEdwards公司的JDE系统、Oracle公司的Oracle、Fourth Shift公司的MSS系统、德国SAP公司的R/3系统、荷兰BAAN公司的BAANIV系统等。IBM的COPICS系统目前在2000多家大公司使用,据统计在资源条件不变的情况下,可增加产值30%。前苏联到1984年共建成7567个ACY系统,提高劳动生产率35%。日本近20年来生产高速发展,则与计算机的广泛应用分不开。NTT公司的DIPS-1系统可同时容纳1 000个用户,响应时间平均为2s。丰田公司的企业管理系统,有汽车辅助设计、订货管理、生产线调度控制等子系统,使订货、计划、加工、装配到出厂的周期从45d降到7d。1.2.2国内应用管理信息系统MIS在我国的发展历史不长,但MIS的运行模式先后经历了主机结构、文件服务器结构、CLIENT/SERVER结构、BROWSER/SERVER结构。随着计算机技术、网络技术和数据库技术的发展,基于INTERNET的管理信息系统已成为企业MIS发展的必然趋势。国内较成熟的管理信息系统产品有:北京利玛CAPMS/95、开思ERP、金航联AEPCS生产管理系统、科希盟的SJ-ERP、北极星ERP;天津企星MRPII、和佳ERP;上海启明MRPII、博科商业ERP;广州MRP高博士、华通ERP;广东慧亚MRP;西安协同软件、博通资讯MRPII;山西经纬JW-MIS等。在应用管理信息系统之后,企业产生很大变化。(1)生产管理改善。如改善和解决了工模具配套缺项、零部件制造周期定量化、及时供料、车间衔接、成本计算等问题。(2)经济效益。以上海电梯厂为例,1994年节约库存资金320万元,生产周期缩短25%,年产量增加,显著节约生产资金240万元,两项节约利息48.8万元,节约其他费用10万元。1.3 管理信息系统的前景展望1.3.1网络技术采用Internet的基础设施及WWW的标准和技术建筑的企业内部网(Intranet)是解决企业范围内信息需求的最佳途径,预计今后较长一段时期内将会是企业计算机网络主流选择方案,具有广阔的发展前景。1.3.2平台开发Intranet采用基于Java技术的软件平台,可实现跨平台运行,与国际潮流相呼应;Visual Basic、PowerBuilder和Delphi引入人工智能系统,提供先进的Web技术,提高开发速度和质量,是客户端应用程序开发的首选工具。1.3.3系统功能系统安全性和可控性的提高,使用户放心使用软件,而不必担心系统泄密或感染病毒则是在系统功能方面发展、完善的要求。1.4 选题依据和意义随着信息技术在管理上越来越深入而广泛的应用,管理信息系统的实施在技术上已逐步成熟。管理信息系统是一个不断发展的新型学科,任何一个单位要生存要发展,要高效率地把内部活动有机地组织起来,就必须建立与自身特点相适应的管理信息系统。本项目开发的软件系统是考研调剂信息管理系统,是鉴于目前高校学生人数剧增,学生信息呈爆炸式增长的前提下,同时考研人数的不断新高,高校对研究生招生工作的自动化与准确化的要求日益强烈的背景下构思处理的,该软件设计完成后可用于招生单位的学生信息的管理。考研调剂信息管理系统是一个招生单位不可缺少的部分。一个功能齐全、简单易用的信息管理系统不但能有效地减轻招生单位相关工作人员的工作负担,它的内容对于高校的决策者和管理者来说都是至关重要的。所以考研调剂信息管理系统应该能够为用户提供充足的信息和快捷的查询手段。但一直以来人们使用传统人工的方式管理文件档案、统计和查询数据,这种管理方式存在着许多缺点:效率低、保密性差、人工浪费严重、信息反馈不及时。另外对于需要进行考研调剂的学生来说,不能及时获得相关学校的考研调剂通知和反馈信息,将会造成一定的社会影响。并且对于招生单位,如何及时地通知到每位学生以及招到合适的学生,都是一个难题。随着科学技术的不断提高,使用计算机和互联网对招生工作进行管理,具有手工管理所无法比拟的优点:查询方便、调剂方便、可靠性好、信息反馈及时、存储量大、保密性好、成本低。这些优点能够极大地提高招生工作的高效率进行,也是一个单位科学化、正规化管理,与世界接轨的重要条件。二、研究的基本内容,拟解决的主要问题: 要设计一套这样的软件系统,其研究的基本内容:采用B/S的架构方式开发本系统,同时登陆有两种方式:一、学生。二、招生单位。在学生的界面中,应有的功能:查询缺额信息、考生调剂报名、修改调剂志愿、查看复试通知、查看待录取通知。在招生单位的界面中,应有的功能:查看调剂学生信息、 修改调剂招生信息、通知复试、通知预录取。要达到设计目的,主要解决的问题:(1)信息的及时反馈,包括学生和招生单位窗口中各种信息的更新,查询,修改。(2)调剂学生信息和招生单位信息的数据库管理,包括总体架构中总设计的各类数据的分类以及数据之间的关联和层次。(3)使用工厂设计模式和DAO设计模式进行构建系统。(4)各功能模块之间的关联和层次关系。(5)每个子模块的分析、分类和整合。(6)各模块进行衔接以搭建整个系统结构。(7)能够支持大量数据的同时访问。三、研究步骤、方法及措施: 首先要熟练掌握Java编程技术以及B/S架构和JavaEE平台的知识。使用到的技术框架包含:Swing,Service和DAO。其次, 主要学习JavaEE平台开发系统,在分析本系统各数据之间的关系和层次,数据管理的必要性和系统工作流程、功能的基础上,运用B/S和JavaEE平台,结合工厂设计模式和DAO设计模式构建系统。接下来分别针对学生界面和招生单位界面进行功能模块分析,对于每个功能模块之间的联系和层次进行分析,对每个功能模块的子模块进行分类和整合。然后将功能模块进行衔接和测试,最后自底向上地搭建整个系统结构。再接下来,则是对软件系统进行概要设计,详细设计,编码,测试。最后,完成毕业论文。四、研究工作进度:注意截止时间和开始时间 好像你们写的都不一样序号时间内容12012-09-01至2012-09-19开题报告、文献综述、文献翻译22012-09-20至2012-10-20系统设计、说明文档32012-10-21至2012-11-30系统实现、论文准备42012-12-01至2012-12-18论文最后修改撰写、准备答辩5678910五、主要参考文献:1 王辉,彭小波,吕志刚,闫双景,姜不居 . 国内外管理信息系统现状及展望J . 特种铸造及有色合金 ,1999 ,(5)2 廖志英,董安邦 . 基于C/S和B/S混合结构的管理信息系统运行模式J . 计算机工程与应用 ,2002 ,38(2)3 鲍振军,赵武,荣先奎 . 利用JavaEE构建创新型企业管理系统J . 机械设计与制造 ,2011 ,(2)4 许立达 . 管理信息系统及其学科发展N . 5 夏骄雄,陆菊康,施振夏 . 不要留多余的空格Intranet与信息管理系统J . 计算机工程与应用 ,2000 ,36(3)6 郭文胜,殷国富,范守文,胡晓兵 . 基于WEB模式的管理信息系统的设计和实施J . 电子科技大学学报 ,2001 ,30(1)7 严勋,孙虎,周丰,张摩西,王玲 . 企业管理信息系统实现模式研究J . 微计算机信息 ,2007 ,23(33)8 张喜生,王志勇 . 基于B/S构架的电力燃料信息管理系统J . 深圳职业技术学院学报 ,2008 ,7(3)9 杨荻 . 医院B/S架构信息管理系统设计与应用J . 计算机仿真 ,2010 ,27(6)六、指导教师审核意见: 指导教师签字: 年月日七、系、室、部(研究所)评议意见: 1. 适合本专业的毕业设计课题;2. 不适合本专业的毕业设计课题;3. 其他 系、室、部(研究所)主任签字: 年月日八、开题小组评审意见:开题小组组长签字: 年月日九、系领导(答辩委员会)审核意见:1通过; 2完善后通过;未通过 系领导(答辩委员会)签字: 年月日 杭州电子科技大学毕业设计(论文)文献综述毕业设计(论文)题目考研调剂信息管理系统的设计和实现文献综述题目基于B/S架构的管理信息系统学 院计算机学院专 业软件工程姓 名王敏班 级09052713学 号09052336指导教师徐向华基于B/S架构的管理信息系统1.前言随着信息技术与网络技术的发展,利用Internet机制来运作的新型管理信息系统实现技术Intranet,开始为人们所重视。目前,随着网络技术的发展,“信息高速公路”建设热潮已在全球拉开序幕,Client/Server应用系统在开放性与信息的发布、交流等方面存在很大的局限性,严重影响到企业适应全球性的全方位信息化进程的步伐,成为当前企业IT部门面临的一个严峻问题。2.基于B/S架构的管理信息系统的研究2.1管理信息系统的新需求从计算机技术的角度,管理信息系统MIS的主要功能是:信息处理,包括信息收集、存储、传输、加工、查询等;辅助事务管理,如辅助计划管理、销售管理、人事管理等;辅助决策,用数学方法预测未来,提供决策信息。但随着计算机网络的普及与信息技术的飞速发展,人们对MIS的要求也在不断提高。用户的需求,首先体现在对感官世界的追求上。由于Internet的超链接与Java、ActiveX等技术的发展,用户已经逐渐进入并习惯于与丰富多彩的Web页面及多媒体成果相接触,这就促使他们对MIS的感官要求有了期望。对于开发人员而言,他们希望MIS框架结构能够以不变应万变,即无论信息源是怎样的数据库,这些都不应该影响软件开发和整个信息的结构;同时需要一种非常灵活的、集成所以功能的开发工具,可以用最快、最好的方法和手段解决问题。对于一个企业来说,对MIS系统的最直接要求就是应用的简单化、持续化和经济化。即通过简单有序地系统运作,起到低成本投入和高效益产出的联动关系,既能包容已有的设备,保护已有的投资,又能引用最新的技术和资源,实现MIS系统已有的应用向基于Web的应用迁移。服务提供者最希望有一个集成的服务器平台。他们认为最有效和实用的MIS系统不管是硬件和服务器之间、还是软件和服务器之间,都应该有一个信息交换和信息互相利用、转换的功能。2.2传统管理信息系统的不足传统的管理信息系统有一些方面不够完善,无法适应,这主要体现在:(1)封闭式单项系统,不同系统无法进行交流。(2)用户界面风格不一,使用复杂,不利于推广使用。(3)系统开发和维护复杂,移植困难,升级麻烦。(4)不能包容已有系统,造成重复投资。(5)不能接纳新技术,限制了其扩展性。(6)缺乏系统性和具有前瞻性的结构框架。2.3Intranet的应用优势Intranet的最大优势在于客户端软件简单而统一,都是通过浏览器来查看信息。这是一种优于客户机/服务器(C/S)结构的浏览器/服务器(B/S)结构,它把传统的C/S模式中的Server分解成一个Web服务器和一个或多个数据库服务器,所有的开发与维护都在Server端进行,这将便于网络的管理。与现有企业网相比,Intranet易于设计、使用和管理,且其特色的三层体系结构之C/S的二层体系结构,可伸缩性明显提高。Intranet技术成功地弥补了以往管理信息系统应用中存在的问题,利用Intranet技术,可以为企业管理信息系统构造一个开放的信息资源管理平台,并将其图、文、声并茂,使用方便,访问信息快捷的新面貌彻底改变传统的MIS。2.5基于B/S架构的管理信息系统从整个软件系统的角度看,可以把基于B/S架构的管理信息系统划分为四个平台,即:网络应用支撑平台、信息资源管理平台、消息传递与工作流管理平台、事务处理平台。网络应用支撑平台包括操作系统、网络通信协议、Web服务器、DBMS等;信息资源管理平台包括实现各种信息资源管理的应用程序、Web浏览器等;消息传递与工作流管理平台包括消息传递服务器、工作流管理应用程序等;事务处理平台包括实现各种事务处理的应用程序。从功能模块的角度着手,该系统主要由六大模块组成:(1)浏览器模块:从服务器下载应用程序,并在客户机上解释执行应用程序。(2)HTTP/Web服务器模块:为浏览器提供服务,处理浏览器的请求,调用服务器端的应用程序或发送应用程序。(3)应用程序模块:所有的应用程序全部放在服务器上,其中Web页面和Java Applet被下载到客户端执行,CGI程序及Web服务器扩展程序则在服务器端执行。(4)DBMS模块:为该系统提供数据库服务,在服务器桑运行,它可以和HTTP服务器在同一主机上,也可以在不同的主机上。(5)数据库:存储数据,供DBMS使用。(6)安全模块:为该系统提供安全服务,保证整个系统的安全,包括应用代理服务器等防火墙模块及信息加密模块。基于B/S的管理信息系统基本上弥补了原有基于C/S架构的管理信息系统的不足:(1)系统开发、维护与升级的经济性(2)提供了一致的用户界面(3)具有很强的开放性(4)结构易于扩展(5)具有更强的信息系统集成性(6)提供灵活的信息交流、信息发布服务3.总结基于B/S架构的管理信息系统将会是未来管理信息系统的趋势,虽然基于C/S架构的管理信息系统也有其优点。将B/S作为考研调剂信息管理系统的主要架构,能够保证敏感数据的安全,使系统维护简便,布局合理,提高了网络效率。参考文献1 廖志英,董安邦 . 基于C/S和B/S混合结构的管理信息系统运行模式J . 计算机工程与应用 ,2002 ,38(2)2 夏骄雄,陆菊康,施振夏 . Intranet与信息管理系统J . 计算机工程与应用 ,2000 ,36(3)3 郭文胜,殷国富,范守文,胡晓兵 . 基于WEB模式的管理信息系统的设计和实施J . 电子科技大学学报 ,2001 ,30(1)4 严勋,孙虎,周丰,张摩西,王玲 . 企业管理信息系统实现模式研究J . 微计算机信息 ,2007 ,23(33)5 张喜生,王志勇 . 基于B/S构架的电力燃料信息管理系统J . 深圳职业技术学院学报 ,2008 ,7(3)6 杨荻 . 医院B/S架构信息管理系统设计与应用J . 计算机仿真 ,2010 ,27(6)文献综述考核表指导教师对文献综述的评语: 指导教师 (签名) 年 月 日建议成绩评阅小组或评阅人对文献综述的评语:评阅小组负责人或评阅人 (签名) 年 月 日建议成绩杭州电子科技大学毕业设计(论文)外文文献翻译毕业设计(论文)题目考研调剂信息管理系统的设计和实现翻译(1)题目翻译(2)题目学 院计算机学院专 业软件工程姓 名王敏班 级09052713学 号09052336指导教师徐向华Decision models for information systems management1 IntroductionIn the last two decades, information systems (IS) management decision making has become more complex. Everyday,IS managers in organizations of all over the world manage billions dollars of assets and must make complex decisions that involve information security, outsourcing,disaster recovery, software, hardware and vendor selection,investment strategies, timing the implementation of complex software systems (such as enterprise resource planning(ERP). Inadequate understanding of these decision problems,poor decision analysis, and bad judgment can result in catastrophic outcomes for companies. However, there has been limited research on decision models and frameworks that could assist information technology (IT)managers with these complex decision problems. While there are researchers working in these areas, much of their work appears in journals outside the field of IS. The primary objective of this special issue of Information Systems Frontiers is to focus on providing solutions to significant IS management problems and to provide strategic knowledge for practicing managers. A second objective of this special issue to give impetus to the development of a line of research that would continue to focus attention on providing solutions for the many emerging complex problems that IS managers may face.2 Information systems decision contextInformation systems management decision problems such as information security, outsourcing, disaster recovery,software, hardware and vendor selection, investment strategies,timing the implementation of complex software systems (such as ERP) are extremely complex and can adversely impact the performance of the firm. The complexity of these decision problems derive from organization and environmental conditions that include (a)multiple stakeholders with different goals and risk preferences (b) multiple objectives and value trade-offs; (c)competitive environments with risk and uncertainty; and(d) inter dependencies, indefinite time horizons and strategic impacts of decision. Under these conditions decision makers often have difficulties identifying decisionalternatives and must be creative and careful in their analysis, as the consequences of poor IS decision making found in the literature show (Lyttinen and Robey 1999; Yeo 2002; Ngwenyama et al. 2007).When managers face complex IS problems, decision analysis frameworks andmethods can be extremely useful when they assist: (1)interrogating the problem domain; (2) structuring decision problems and generating alternatives; (3) analyzing alternatives and assessing their impacts; (4) determining the preferences of decision makers; (5) evaluating and comparing decision alternatives, and, analysis of implications.However, while general theories and frameworks exists for decision analysis, the complexity and diversity of IS problems necessitate research and development of frame-works and models specific to the class of decision problems that IS managers face.3 The papersIn this special issue we present eight papers that present a range of approaches and address a wide range of IS decision problems. In general the papers can be classified into two categories, frameworks for decision analysis and decision models. One of the papers presents a conceptual framework; five of the papers present structured decision analysis frameworks, and three present decision-theoretic based models. While all the papers follow the design science paradigm of research, the decision framework papers present empirical cases, and the decision-theoretic papers present demonstrations of analysis using the models.The Samoilenko paper (Information Systems Fitness and Risk in IS Development: Insights and Implications from Chaos and Complex Systems Theories) outlines a framework and principles for analyzing IS fitness and risk based on chaos and complexity theory. Samoilenko approach is more in the tradition of appreciative decision making, where the focus is on ways of thinking to help the decision maker appreciate the problem situation. Aydin and Bakker (Analyzing IT Maintenance Outsourcing Decision from a Knowledge Management Perspective) also followthis tradition but from an empirically grounded perspective outlining a framework for decision analysis of knowledge management issues in IS outsourcing. They focus mainly on strategies for interrogating the problem domain and structuring the decision problem. Alaranta and Henningsson (An Approach to Analyzing and Planning Post-Merger IS Integration: Insights from Two Field Studies) outline a framework and approach for post-merger information systems integration planning. Post-merger IS integration is a complex multidimensional problem that is challenging many IS managers. Alaranta and Henningsson discuss the key decisions of the planning process and suggest strategies for approaching them. An important feature of their approach is its grounding in empirical case studies of favorable and unfavorable strategies. The Scheepers and Scheepers (A Process-focused Decision Framework for Analyzing the Business Value Potential of IT Investments) framework focuses on analyzing IT investments from the perspective of business value creation. These authors develop a model for exploring the business value potential of IT at the business process level; a challenging undertaking necessary for cost-benefit analysis. The last of this category is that of Barclay (Towards An Integrated Measurement of IS Project Performance: The Project Performance Scorecard), who presents a framework and approach for evaluating project performance based on existing theoretical models of IS success and the Balanced Scorecard. She focuses on defining dimensions of project measurement that are of interest to different stakeholders and a process for eliciting preferences.The three decision-theoretic papers also vary in topicsthat they cover. Like Barclay, Plaza (Team Performance and Information System Implementation Application of the Progress Curve to the Earned Value Method in an Information System Project) is concerned with IS project performance but comes to the issue from a different perspective. Plaza is interested in predicting implementation times (and cost) for large scale IS projects and proposes a decision model based on the earned value method and the learning curve. Rao and Osei-Bryson (An Approach for Incorporating Quality-Based CostBenefit Analysis in Data Warehouse Design) focus on an aspect of data warehouse design where the major concern is the determination of the data that are to be produced and stored in the data warehouse. They present a cost-benefit model that incorporates quality issues in data warehouse design.Finally Turetken (Is Your Back-Up IT Infrastructure in a Safe Location?) presents a multi-criteria decision model for location of the IT infrastructure for business continuity planning.4 Contribution of this issueThis issue of ISF makes a contribution to theory and practice of IS management from the following perspectives: (1) The papers present frameworks and models that have immediate application to various classes of IS decision problems. (2)The papers present possibilities for further research into decision models for the problems that the authors have addressed. However, this research can evolve along different lines: (a) the development of decision support systems for the addressed problems; (b) other approaches or techniques that might be applicable for extending the breadth and depth of the current approaches; (c) alternative approaches can be proposed for the set of problems and comparative analysis can be conducted.We wish to express our appreciation to all the authors who submitted papers.We also wish to express our gratitude to all the reviewers who diligently reviewed the papers in order to ensure that that there was appropriate quality and fit.The Application Reseach of Mixed Program Structure based on Client-Server,Browser-Server and Web ServiceI. INTRODUCTIONDuring the development process of computer application design and development, multiple program structure mode have turned up, such as common C/S (Client/Server) mode and B/S (Browser/Server) mode; C/Ss (multilayer and multiserver Client/Server application structure) mode and B/Ss(multilayer and multi-server Brower/Server application structure), evolving from the above two modes; as well as other modes.These application structures with different modes have respective characteristics and all of them have very broad application. For example, C/S mode enjoys a wide application in earlier enterprise management information system and B/S mode is extensively applied in modern E-commerce websites.Along with the development of computer and network technology, application of mixed application structure mode,based on the aforesaid modes and Web Service, has developed quickly. Typical instances are Tencent QQ message service and Thunder consultation service as well as others. This text discusses realization principle and characteristics of C_B/S mixed application system structure mode and analyzes application and realization of C_B/S mode with examples.II. REALIZATION PRINCIPLE OF C_B/S STRUCTURE MODEC_B/S mode is a mixed application structure mode.Viewing from program appearance, application program of C_B/S mode has the program interface of common customized client. However, different from common C/S mode programs,partial functions of C_B/S mode application program are realized by B/S mode or integrated Web Service, which indicates that C_B/S mode is a new program structure realized through C/S, B/S and Web Service.Realization methods of C_B/S mode application are mainly two types.A. Webpage integrated typeWebpage integrated type indicates that client of C_B/S program realizes partial functions through acquiring customized webpage directly from corresponding website during execution. The process is shown in Figure 1.C_B/S mode program realized by webpage integrated type generally integrates one or several browser component (s) in client program. The mode visiting website and acquiring data through integrated browser components is similar as directly visiting website through common browser (such as IE). The difference is that client of C_B/S program is customized which could thereby integrate more specific functions.B. Web Service integrated type Compared with webpage integrated type, Web Service integrated type could have no browser components within application client and data required by partial program functions are realized interactively with specific Web Service.Web Service provides information to outside in XML format and client program could send specific parameters to Web Service to acquire data qualified for designated conditions.Realization process of this method is shown in Figure 2.Figure 1. Webpage integrated C_B/S modeFigure 2. Web Service integrated C_B/S modeIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF C_B/S MODEOwing to integration of structures of the three modes: C/S,B/S and Web Service, application program of C_B/S mode has characteristics partly of the above three modes which are represented specifically in following aspects.A. High security Comparatively speaking, application program of C/S modedeploys client program independently and thereby limits user within specific range, which prevents usage from illegal users to some extent and has comparative high security. Many enterprise application programs in early st
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