市场营销原理外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献

本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：New-Product Pricing Strategies文献、资料来源：著作文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.4外文文献：Principles of Marketing1.New-Product Pricing StrategiesPricing strategies usually change as the product passes through its life cycle. The introductory stage is especially challenging. We can distinguish between pricing a product that imitates existing products and pricing an innovative product that is patent protected.A company that plans to develop an imitative new product faces a product-positioning problem. It must decide where to position the product versus positioning strategies. First， the company might decide to use a premium pricing competing products in terms of quality and price. Figure 17.1 shows four possible strategy - producing a high-quality product and charging the highest price. At the other extreme， it might decide on an economy pricing strategy - producing a lower-quality product， but charging a low price. These strategies can coexist in the same market as long as the market consists of at least two groups of buyers， those who seek quality and those who seek price. Thus， Tag-Heuer offers very high-quality sports watches at high prices， whereas Casio offers digital watches at almost throwaway prices.Companies bringing out an innovative， patent-protected product face the challenge of setting prices for the first time. They can choose between two strat-egies： market-shimming pricing and market-penetration pricing.(1) Market-Skimming PricingMany companies that invent new products initially set high prices to skimrevenues layer by layer from the market. Intel is a prime user of this strategy， called market-skimming pricing. When Intel first introduces a new computer chip， it charges the highest price it can，given， the benefits of the new chip over competing chips. It sets a price that makes it just worthwhile for some segments of the market to adopt computers containing the chip. As initial sales slow down and as competitors threaten to introduce similar chips， Intel lowers the price to draw in the nest price-sensitive layer of customers.(2) Market-Penetration PricingRather than setting a high initial price to skim off small but profitable market segments， some companies use market-penetration pricing. They set a low initial price in order to penetrate the market quickly and deeply - to attract a large number of buyers quickly and win a large market share. The high sales volume results in falling costs， allowing the company to cut its price even further. For example， Dell and Dan used penetration pricing to sell high-quality computer products through lower-cost mail-order channels. Their sales soared when IBM， Compaq， Apple and other competitors selling through retail stores could not match their prices. The Bank of Scotland and Winterthur of Switzerland used their Direct Line， Privilege and Churchill subsidiaries to grab profits and share in the motor insurance market by selling direct to consumers at market-penetrating prices. The high volume results in lower costs that， in turn， allow the discounters to keep prices low.Several conditions favour setting a low price. First， the market must be highly price sensitive， so that a low price produces more market growth. Second， production and distribution costs must fall as sales volume increases. Finally， the low price must help keep out the competition - otherwise the price advantage may he only temporary. For example， Dell faced difficult times when IBM and Compaq established their own direct distribution channels.2.Product-Mix Pricing StrategiesThe strategy for setting a products price often has to he changed when the product is part of a product mix. In this case， the firm looks for a set of prices that maximizes the profits on the total product mix. Pricing is difficult because the various products have related demand and costs， and face different degrees of competition. (1) Product Line PricingCompanies usually develop product lines rather than single products. For example， Merlonis sells Indesit， Ariston and Seholte with price and status ascending in that order. There arc full ranges of Indesit to Ariston appliances， from washing machines to freezers， covering the first two price hands， while Scholte sells expensive built-in kitchen equipment. Kodak offers not just one type of film， hut an assortment including regular Kodak film， higher-priced Kodak Royal Gold film for special occasions， and a lower-priced， seasonal film called Runtime that competes with store brands. Each of these brands is available in a variety of sizes and film speeds. In product line pricing， management must decidion the price steps to set between the various products in a line.The price steps should take into account cost differences between the prod-ucts in the line， customer evaluations of their different features and competitors prices. If the price difference between two successive products is small， buyers will usually buy the more advanced product. This will increase company profits if the cost difference is smaller than the price difference. If the price difference is large， however， customers will generally buy the less advanced products.(2) Optional-Product PricingMany companies use optional-pro duet pricing - offering to sell optional or acces-sory products along with their main product. For example，a ear buyer may choose to order power windows， cruise control and a radio with a CD player. Pricing these options is a sticky problem. Car companies have to decide which items to include in the base price and which to offer as options. BMWs basic cars come famously under equipped. Typically the 318i is about DM40，000， but the customer then has to pay extra for a radio (prices vary)， electric windows (DM700)， sun roof (DM! ，800) and security system (DM1，100). The basic model is stripped of so many comforts and conveniences that most buyers reject it. The pay for extras or buy a better-equipped version. More recently， however， American and European car makers have been forced to follow the example of the Japanese car makers and include in the basic price many useful items previously sold only as options. The advertised price now often represents a well-equipped car.(3) Cap Live-Pro duct PricingCompanies that make products that must be used along with a main product are using captive-product pricing. Examples of captive products are razors， camera film and computer software. Producers of the main products (razors， cameras and computers) often price them low and set high mark-ups on the supplies. Thus Polaroid prices its cameras low because it makes its money on the film it sells. And Gillette sells low-priced razors， but makes money on the replacement blades. Camera makers that do not sell film have to price their main products higher inorder to make the same overall profit.(4) By-Product PricingIn producing proeessed meats， petroleum products， chemicals and other products， there are often by-products. If the by-products have no value and if getting rid of them is costly， this will affect the pricing of the main product. Using by-product pricing， the manufacturer will seek a market for these by-products and should accept any price that covers more than the cost of storing and delivering； them. This practice allows the seller to reduce the main products price to make It more competitive. By-products can even turn out to be profitable. For example， many lumber mills have begun to sell bark chips and sawdust profitably as decorative mulch for home and commercial landscaping.Sometimes companies dont realize how valuable their by-products are. For example， most Zoos dont realize that one of their by-products their occupants manure - can be an excellent source of additional revenue. But the Zoo-Doo Compost Company has helped many zoos understand the costs and opportunities involved with these by-products. Zoo-Dolicenses its name to zoos and receives royalties on manure sales. Manyzoos dont even know how much manure they are producing or the cost of disposing of it， explains president and founder Fierce Ledbetter. Zoos are often so pleased with any savings they can find on disposal that they dont think to move into active by-product sales. However， sales of the fragrant by-product can be substantial. So far novelty sales have been the largest， with tiny containers of Zoo Doo (and even Love， Love Me Doovalentines) available in 160 zoo stores and 700 additional retail outlets. For the long-term market， Zoo-Doo looks to organic gardeners who buy15 to 70 pounds of manure at a time. Zoo Doo is already planning a Dung of the Month club to reach these lucrative by-product markets.(5) Product-Bundle PricingUsing， product-bundle pricing， sellers often combine several of their products and offer the bundle at a reduced price. Thus theatres and sports teams sell seas on tickets at less than the cost of single tickets； hotels sell specially priced packages that include room， meals and entertainment； computer makers in elude attractives of ware packages with their personal computers. Price bundling can promote the sales of products that consumers might not otherwise buy， but the combined price must be low enough to get them to buy the bundle. In other cases， product-bundle pricing is used to sell more than the customer really wants. Obtaining a ticket to an exclusive sports event is difficult， but World Cup football finals tickets are available to people willing to buy them bundled with a supersonic Concorde flight.3. Price-Adjustment StrategiesCompanies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations. Seven price-adjustment strategics： discount and allowance pricing， segmented pricing， psychological pricing， promotional pricing， -value pricing， geographical pricing and international pricing.(1) Discount and Allowance PricingMost companies adjust their basic price to reward customers for certain responses， such as early payment of bills， volume purchases and off-season buying. These price adjustments - called discounts and allowances - can take many forms.A cash discount is a price reduction to buyers who pay their bills promptly， Atypical example is 2/10， net 30. which means that although payment is due within 30 days， the buyer can deduct 2 per cent if the hill is paid within 10 days. The discount must be granted to all buyers meeting these terms. Such discounts are customary in many industries and help to improve the sellers cash situation and reduce bad debts and credit-collection costs.A quantity discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy large volumes. Atypical example might be K10 per unit for less than 100 units， $9 per unit for 100or more units. Wine merchants often give twelve for the price of eleven andMakro， the trade warehouse， automatically gives discounts on any product bought in bulk. Discounts provide an incentive to the customer to buy more from one given seller， rather than from many different sources.A quantity premium is sometimes charged to people buying higher volumes. In Japan it often costs more per item to buy a twelve-pack of beer or sushi than smaller quantities because the larger packs are more gift able and therefore less price sensitive. Quantity surcharges can also oecur when die product being bought is in short supply or in sets - for example， several seats together at a sold-out rock concert or sports event - and some small restaurants charge a premium to large groups. Similarly， in buying antiques， it costs more to buy six complete place settings of cutlery than a single item. In this case the price will continue toincrease with volume， eight place settings costing more than six， and twelve place settings costing more than eight. Quantity premiums are more common than people imagine， and that is why they work. Consumers expect prices to deerease with volume and so do not check unit prices. This allows retailers to slip in high-margin items. Quantity surcharge increases with the variety and complexity of pack sizes and， in some markets， over 30 per cent of ranges include some quantity surcharging.A trade discount (also called a functional discount) is offered by the seller to trade channel members that perform certain functions， such as selling， storing and record keeping. Manufacturers may offer different functional discounts to different trade channels because of the varying services they perform， but manufacturers must offer the same functional discounts within each trade channel.A seasonal discount is a price discount to buyers who buy merchandise orservices out of season. For example， lawn and garden equipment manufacturers will offer seasonal discounts to retailers during the autumn and winter to encourage early ordering in anticipation of the heavy spring and summer selling seasons. Hotels,motels and airlines will offer seasonal discounts in their slower selling periods. Seasonal discounts allow the seller to keep production steady during the entire year.Allowances are another type of reduction from the list price. For example， trade-in allowances are price reductions given for turning in an old item when buying a new one. Trade-in allowances are most common in the car industry， but are also given for othe rdurable goods. Promotional allowances are payments or price reductions to reward dealers for participating in advertising and sales-support programmes.(2) Segmented PricingCompanies will often adjust their basic prices to allow for differences in customers， products and locations. In segmented pricing， the company sells aproduct or service at two or more prices， even though the difference in prices is not based on differences in costs. Segmented pricing takes several forms：* Customer-segment pricing. Different customers pay different prices for thesame product or service. Museums， for example， will charge a lower admission for young people， the unwaged， students and senior citizens. Inmany parts of the world， tourists pay more to see museums， shows andnational monuments than do locals.* Product-form pricing. Different versions of the product are priced differently， but not according to differences in their costs. For instance， the Dutch company Skil prices its 6434H electric drill at DF1200， which isDF1125 more than the price .of its 6400H. The 6434H is more powerful and has more features， yet this extra power and features cost only a few more guilders to build in.* Location pricing. Different locations are priced differently， even though the cost of offering each location is the same. For instance， theatres vary theirs cat prices because of audience preferences for certain locations and EU universities charge higher tuition fees for non-EU students.* Time pricing. Prices vary by the season， the month， the day and even the hour. Public utilities vary their prices to commercial users by time of day and weekend versus weekday. The telephone company offers lower off-peak charges and resorts give seasonal discounts. For segmented pricing to be an effective strategy， certain conditions must exist. The market must be segmen table and the segments must show different degrees of demand. Members of the segment paying the lower price should not beably to turn around and resell the product to the segment paying the higher price.Competitors should not be able to undersell the firm in the segment being charged the higher price. Nor should the costs of segmenting and watching the market exceed the extra revenue obtained from the price difference. The practice should not lead to customer resentment and ill will. Finally， the segmented pricing must he legal.(3) Promotional PricingWith promotional pricing， companies will temporarily price their products below list price and sometimes even below cost. Promotional pricing takes several forms. Supermarkets and department stores will price a few products as toss leaders to attract customers to the store in the hope that they will buy other items at normal mark-ups. Kellers will also use special-event pricing in certain seasons to draw in more customers. Thus linens are promotionally priced every January to attract weary Christmas shoppers back into the stores. Manufacturers will sometimes offer cash rebates to consumers who buy the product from dealers within a specified time； the manufacturer sends the rebate directly to the customer. Rebates have recently been popular with car makers and producers of durable goods and small appliances. Some manufacturers offer low-interest financing， longer warranties or free maintenance to reduce the consumers price. This practice has recently become a favourite of the car industry. Or， the seller may simply offer discounts from normal prices to increase sales and reduce inventories.Pricing strategies and tactics form an important element of a companys marketing mix. In setting prices， companies must carefully consider a great many internal and external factors before choosing a price that will give them the greatest competitive advantage in selected target markets. However， companies are not usually free to charge whatever prices they wish. Several laws restrict pricing practices and a number of ethical considerations affect pricing decisions. Pricing strategies and tactics also depend upon the way that we pay for things. Increasingly what we spend does not depend on how much money we have on us or how much we earned that week. These days our money is rarely something we sec or feel； it is the electronic transmission of data between files. Also， as currency is becoming an increasingly small part of our lives， barter is coming back in international and interpersonal dealing. Marketing Highlight 17，3 tells more about how money is changing.中文译文：市场营销原理第一节 新产品定价策略定价策略在产品生命周期的不同阶段常常要改变，尤其是产品的新生期极具挑战性。让我们来比较两种产品的定价，一种是模仿现有产品的新产品，另一种是有专利保护的创新产品。公司如果模仿市场上已经有的产品，就面临产品定位问题，它必须决定如何给产品定位，以便在价格和质量上与对手竞争。首先，公司可能采取高附加值定价策略，生产高质量的产品，定很高的价格。在另一个极端，它可能使用经济定价策略，生产质量低一些的产品，定价较低。只要市场上有两个购买者群体，一个追求质量，一个追求价格， 这些策略就可以同时在市场上存在。劳力士公司(Rolex)生产质量非常高的手表，价格也非常高， 泰麦克斯公司(Timex)生产质量低一些的产品， 价格也比较容易被接受。推出有专利保护的创新产品的公司，面对第一次为产品定价的挑战， 他们可以在两种策略中做出选择：撇脂式定价法或渗透式定价法。一、撇脂式定价法许多公司发明了新产品，开始时都使用撇脂式定价法，以便一步步地在市场上争取收入。英特尔公司(Intel)就使用这种撇脂式定价策略(Market-Skimming Pricing)。当英特尔公司推出一种新的计算机芯片时，它使用最高的价格， 帮助新的芯片压倒市场上原有的芯片。它制定的价格瞄准一些子市场，这些子市场上的计算机需要这种新的芯片。当新产品销售的速度降下来时， 或当竞争者即将推出类似芯片时， 英特尔公司降低价格， 吸引市场上那些对价格十分敏感的消费者。撇脂式定价法只在一定条件下有意义。首先，产品的质量和形象必须与产品价格一致，有相当多的顾客接受这种价格下的产品。其次，生产较少量的产品的成本不能太高， 以致抵消定高价所带来的好处。最后，竞争者没有可能很容易地进入市场， 以同样价格参加竞争。 二、渗透式定价法一些公司使用渗透式定价法(Market-Penetrating Pricing)。不像撇脂式定价法那样制定高价格，瞄准能产生高额利润的小型子市场，使用渗透式定价法，人们制定很低的价格，迅速渗透进入市场，迅速吸引消费者，快速占有很大的市场份额。销售量大可以减少成本，公司有可能进一步降低价格。例如，德尔公司(Dell)和盖特卫公司(Gateway)使用渗透式定价方法，为高质量计算机产品定价， 再通过低成本邮寄渠道分销。当IBM公司、康柏公司、苹果公司和其他竞争者通过零售商店销售计算机， 不能达到很低的价格时， 它们两家的销售上去了。荷姆公司(Home Depot)、沃尔玛公司(War-Mart)和其他折扣零售商店也使用渗透式定价法，定低价，以便增加销售量。大的销售量反过来又保证了价格的进一步降低。有几种条件对制定低价格有利。首先，市场必须对价格十分敏感， 能在低价格下迅速增长。第二，生产和分销成本必须随销售量的增加而下降。最后，低价格要能阻止竞争， 否则的话，低价格可能只是暂时的。例如， 当IBM公司和康柏公司建立了自己的分销渠道后，德尔公司和盖特卫公司的处境就很困难了。 第二节 产品组合定价策略当产品是产品组合的一部分时，产品的定价策略就需要改变。在这种情况下，企业寻求一组价格，能够使整个产品组合的利润最大。由于各个产品的需求成本以及面对的竞争程度各不相同，所以定价的难度较大。一、产品系列定价公司通常会开发一个产品系列，而不是一个单一产品。例如， 斯耐波公司(Snapper)制造许多不同的割草机，从价格为 259. 95 美元、299.95 美元、399.95 美元简单的手推式， 到1 000 美元左右可以骑上去开的那种都有。系列中每个成功的割草机都有特点。柯达公司生产不止一种胶卷，而是一个系列，包括普通柯达牌胶卷，特殊情况使用的 Kodak RoyalGold 牌胶卷，和低价格的称作“快乐时光牌(Funtime)”的季节性胶卷为的是和经销商品牌胶卷竞争。柯达公司的这些品牌产品的规格和感光速度都不一样。在产品系列定价 (Product Line Pricing)的过程中，管理部门必须决定系列中不同产品的价格差别。价格差别要考虑系列产品中的成本差别、消费者对不同产品特色的看法以及竞争者的价格。如果两个成功产品的价格差别小，购买者通常会买性能先进的产品。如果成本差别比价格差别要小，这种情况下会增加公司的利润。如果价格差别大， 消费者一般会买不怎么先进的产品。二、备选产品的定价许多公司销售与主体产品配套的备选产品或附加产品时，使用备选产品的定价方法 (Optional-Product Pricing)。例如，一位汽车购买者可能选择电动窗、油门锁定键、带激光机的音响等。为这些备选产品定价是很棘手的问题，汽车公司必须决定哪些产品包括在汽车基础价格里，哪些作为备选产品。近些年来通用汽车公司一般的价格策略是对每辆 1.2万美元的基本车型做广告，吸引大家到展览中心，展室大部分空间都摆着安装了各种备选产品的汽车