英语语法(01语法层次)

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Unit 1: Levels of English Grammar,Issues of this unit:,Levels of grammar units,morpheme, word, phrase, clauses,学习内容预告：,本单元之后，请预习：,第,4,、,5,讲：名词和名词词组、名词属格,The subject of this course:,Language system:,Sound system, for phonology (,音系学,),Meaning system, for semantics (,语义学,),Rule system, for grammar study,This course studies the syntactic rules.,Different levels of forms in English:,（Discourse Text）,Sentence,Clause,Phrase,Word,Morpheme,A,）,Morphemes (,词素,),English morpheme,Free morphemeBound morpheme,(,自由词素,) (,粘附词素,),e.g,.,man friend,e.g.,im,- -y,take luck,pre- -,ess,(as roots, stems,，,词根、词干,) (as affixes,，,词缀,),Affixes,： （,词缀的结构分类,）,1 prefix (,前缀,),：,pre,-war,anti,body,im,possible,2 suffix (,后缀,),：,care,ful, farm,er, nice,ly, home,ly,3 infix (,中缀,),：,foot f,ee,t, state,s,man,词缀的功能分类：,一些词缀是,句法性的,(syntactic),，,如：,-ed,标示动词的过去时，,-s,则标示名词的复数或动词第三人称单数等；它们被称为“,Inflectional affix,(,屈折词缀,),；其他如：,-s -ed -,est,”,另一些词缀则是,语义性的,(semantic),，例如：,-,er,作为名词词尾，表示“,one who,”,的含义；它们通常被称为“,Derivational affix (,派生词缀,),”,Next, lets look more closely at some examples of stems, affixations and their roles in forming English words.,（,I have prepared,a list of the stems, prefixes and suffixes,of English words, which is in a Word file. If you are interested, you can copy it after class.,）,1,）,Examples of Prefixes:,a-, an-,/ without, lacking, not /,a,symmetr,ic,a,politi,cal,a,sex,ual,a,n,arch,y,bi-,/ two /,bi,cycle,bi,later,al,bi,ped,bi,pol,ar,bi,valence,形式有差异，但意义相同的词缀：,（词缀变体，由不同的语音导致的变化）：,com-, con-,col,-,cor,-, co-,/ together, with /,combine, compassion,concentric circle, contract,collaborate, colleague,correspond, correlation,cooperation, coworker,形式相同，但意义不同的词缀：,im,-, in-,il,-,ir,-,/ in, into, on /,immigrant, import, income, illustration,irrigation,(,通常为名词、动词,),im,-, in-,il,-,ir,-,/ not /,impossible, immature, ineffectual, illegal,irresponsible,（,通常为形容词）,反义词缀：,inter-,/ between /,international, interpersonal, internet,intergroup,intra-, intro-,/ within /,intranet,intragroup, introduction, introspection,sub-,/ under /,subject, submarine, subsonic,super-,/ above, greater/,supersonic,supermarket, superpower,反义词缀：,macro-,/ big /,macrocomputer,macrocontrol,macroeconomy,micro-,/small /,microcomputer,microcontrol,microeconomy,同义、近义词缀：,anti-,/ against /,antibiotic, antibody, antisocial, antifascist,contra-,/ against /,contradiction, contrast,counter-,/ against /,counteract, counterpart,counterrevolution, counterclockwise,同义、近义词缀：,demi,-,/ a half or a part of /,demi,-god,demilune,semi-,/ half, partly /,semiconductor, semifinal, semicircle,hemi,sphere,fore-,/ before, in front of /,forehead, forestall, forefather, forerunner,pre-,/ before /,prewar, prepare, preposition, preschool,2,）,Examples of Suffixes:,有些后缀仅仅具有句法意义,：,-,ness,/added to adjectives to form nouns/,carelessness, goodness, laziness, drowsiness,-,sumption,/ noun form for verbs ended with,-,ume,/,assumption, consumption, resumption,assume,assumption,有些后缀则既有句法意义，也有语义意义,：,-able, -,ible,/ adj. capable of, fit for /,eatable, workable, considerable, sizable, feasible,-,oid,/ n. like, resembling /,asteroid, anthropoid, mongoloid,有些后缀具有不同的意义（例如相反意义）：,-,er, -or, -,eer,/ n. one who /,worker, officer, operator, actor, engineer, profiteer,-,ee,/ n. one who (usu. in passive sense)/,interviewee,testee,fiancee, employee,3,）,Examples of Stems:,-,anim,-,/ spirit /,anim,al,un,anim,ous, magn,anim,ous,-aqua-,/ water /,aqua,tic sports,aqua,rium,aqua,naut,-auto-,/ self /,auto,biography,auto,mation,auto,mobile,aut,ism,-cap-, -,capit,-,/ head, chief /,capit,al,capt,ain, de,capit,ation,per,capit,a income,-,dict,-,/ say, speak /,dict,ation,dict,ionary,dict,ator, contra,dict,ion,-son-,/ sound /,sub,son,ic, con,son,ant, re,son,ant, ultra,son,ic,小贴士：词根的典故：,Cesar:,Veni,Vidi, Vinci,!“,-,ven,-, -,vent,-,/ come /,intervene, prevent, convention,-,vid,-, -,vis,-,/ see /,video, visualize, vision, vista,-,vinc,-, -,van,-,/ conquer /,victory, invincible, vanquish, vanity,Just a small quiz, before we go on:,Do you know these words and if not, can you figure out their meanings:,docudrama,netizen,ultramodern,hydrotherapy retrospect transplant,clockwise, counterclockwise,testwise,Can you make out the meaning of this word,：,pneumono,ultra,micro,scopic,silico,volcano,coni,osis,词中，词根词缀的含义：,-,pneumono,-,pneumonia, pneumatic gun,ultra-,ultrasonic, ultraviolet,micro-,microcomputer, microphone,-,scop,-,telescope, microscope,silicon,硅,volcano,火山,-,coni,-,of cones,-,osis,（病名后缀）,tuberculosis, scoliosis,The meaning of the word,：,pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis,is this in Chinese,：,硅酸盐沉淀病,英语的大词比小词容易记。,Now lets go to the next level of grammar,：,the word level.,B) Words:,Types of English Words,In terms of function,（按功能分）,Closed class words (,封闭类词，虚词,),Open class words (,开放类词，实词,),Closed class words,(function words,封闭类词，虚词,),这类词无词形变化，数量小,Preposition, pronoun, determiner, conjunction, auxiliary,and in the they shall,Open class words,(content words,开放类词，实词,),noun, adjective, adverb, main verb, numerals (cardinal, ordinal),这类词有词形变化，数量很大,boy,boys,good,best,three,thirty borrow,borrowed,borrowing,Types of English Words,In terms of structure,（按结构分）,1,）,simple words,（简单词）,2,）,derivative words,（派生词）,3,）,compound words,（复合词）,1) Simple word,（简单词）,Also called,“,morpheme word,，,单词素词,”,（不能再分为更小的词素）,e.g,.:,foot, head, car, near, by, in,2) Derivatives (,派生词,),：,Formed by,: stem + affixes,e.g,.:,uncover; harmless; education,【,e- -,duc,- -at -ion,】,Review:,Syntactic affixes,:,work,ed,red,den,grace,ful,Semantic affixes,:,super,man,cook,er,anti,body,须注意：,syntactic,和,semantic,的区分不是绝对的，句法性词缀也可能有语义价值：,employ,er,vs.,employ,ee,train,er,vs.,train,ee,interview,er,vs.,interview,ee,而有的语义性词缀也可以有不同的词性：,beauti,ful,vs.,hand,ful,psycho,tic,/,neuro,tic,antibio,tic,/,army med,ic,3) Compounds (,复合词,),：,In English, many words are formed by combining two or more words together and these words are called,compound words,.,Content words such as nouns, verbs and adjectives can all be formed in this fashion.,Compounding: the combination of different words or word parts to form a new word:,A) Compound Nouns:,n. + n.,workshop, bookshelf, lifesaver, color-film,pron. + n.,she-wolf, he-bear, he-man,n. + v.,sunrise, sunset, shoplift, power-cut,v. + n.,scarecrow, telltale, breakfast, turncoat,a. + n.,greenhouse, red-tape, busybody, bluebook,B) Compound Adjectives:,a. +n. +,ed,.,smooth-tongued, cold-blooded, narrow-minded, high-nosed,n. + v. +,ed,.,heart-broken, weather-beaten, home-made, heartfelt,n. + v. +,ing,.,peace-keeping, law-abiding, time-saving, truth-telling, fact-finding,n. + a.,blood-thirsty, ice-free, snow-white, homesick,a. + n.,high-grade, first-class, long-range, new-type, second-hand,a. + a.,bloody-red, bittersweet, dead-alive, white-hot,v. + a.,test-wise, failsafe, diehard, talk-big,prep. + n.,indoor, overhead, aboveboard, online,hyphen conj.,out-of-door, life-and-death, wait-and-see,C) Compound Verbs,:,adv. + v.,to overtake, to uplift, to uproot, to underline,to downplay, to upload,n. + n.,to brainstorm, to streamline, to dog-ear,to windsurf, to showcase,n. + v.,to air-drop, to eavesdrop, to breastfeed,to nose-dive, to mastermind,a. + v.,to safeguard, to whitewash, to blindfold,Just a small quiz, before we go on:,Can you figure out the meanings of these compounds:,think-tank, kill-joy, apple-polisher,half-hearted, honey-mouthed,far-reaching,ill-fitting,to cold-shoulder, to mass-produce,The answer to the quiz:,think-tank,(,智库,),kill-joy,(,扫兴的人,/,事,),apple-polisher,(,马屁精,),half-hearted,(,不热心的,),honey-mouthed,(,甜言蜜语的,),far-reaching,(,影响深远的,),ill-fitting,(,不合身的,),to cold-shoulder,(,让,吃闭门羹,),to mass-produce,(,规模化生产,/,批量生产,),Other patterns of word formation,：,There are also other ways to form English words, which constitute several,patterns of English word-formation,.,Next, lets take a look at these patterns.,Pattern I.,Phrase-hyphen, most of the words formed this way are adjectives:,a,damned-if-they-do, damned-if-they-dont,choice,a,not-so-strong,team;,the,no-war, no-peace,stalemate;,the,cards-on-the-table,approach;,the,ends-justify-means,philosophy;,Also nouns, such as,：,forget-me-not,Pattern II.,Conversions, the shift of the parts of speech of a word:,n.,v.,to knife, to house, to water, to eyeball,to wine and dine,v.,n.,give somebody a push, this years pick, a cheat, to give it a rethink,a.,n.,the old, the rich, the accused, through thick and thin, the illegal,Pattern III.,Blending, the merge of word parts to form a new word:,head + ending:,smog, motel, heliport, brunch,word + ending:,workaholic,netizen,lunarnaut,head + word:,medicare,psywar,telediagnosis,cyberpolice,head + head:,comsat,Amerind,memcom, telex,Pattern IV.,Clipping, removing some part of a word to make it shorter while keeping the meaning:,A: tail-clipping:,ad, lab,heli(copter,), math, gym, biz, bike, comfy, auto,B: head-clipping:,bus,shute, phone, (,heli)copter, plane, quake,C: head and tail clipping:,fridge, flu,tec,Pattern V.,Acronym, the formation of a new word from the initial letters of a phrase:,radar :,radio detecting and ranging,laser:,light-wave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation,AIDS:,acquired immunity deficiency syndrome,知道这些词是哪些词的缩写吗：,UFO, UNESCO, VIP, WHO, NATO, OPEC, ASEAN,Pattern VI.,Formation of words from proper nouns:,roentgen,watt,hertz,volt,ampere,pasteurize,champagne,waterloo,water-gate,xerox,Marxism,Reaganomics,to,clinton,to,lewenski,？,Next, lets go to the next level of grammar,：,the phrase level.,C) Phrases (,短语、词组,),Phrases of English,NPVP,AdjP,AdvP,PrepP,“,P,” means “,phrase,”.,1. NP (noun phrase,名词短语,),：中心语为名词,(det.) + (modifier) +,Noun,+ (modifier),e.g.:,a lazy,boy,still asleep,the,earthquake,of Richter magnitude 8 with the epicenter at,Yingxiu,the hottest,hotpot,that I have ever tasted since I came to Sichuan,NPs that might be misinterpreted,：,dead president,sweat water,blind date,handwriting on the wall,dry goods,NPs that might be misinterpreted,：,dead president,：,美钞,sweat water,：,淡水,blind date,：,男女初次会面,（他人安排）,handwriting on the wall,：,不祥之兆,dry goods,：,(,美,),纺织品；,(,英,),谷物,2. VP (verb phrase,动词短语,),：中心语为动词,simple VP: Main Verb + (modifier),e.g.:,I,hate,English grammar,deeply,.,complex VP: Auxiliary + Main Verb + (mod.),e.g.:,We,are going,to sleep away,the class,.,I,would have been,to,Wenchuan,as a volunteer worker, if I,had not had to go to,school now.,Finite VP: (affected by tense, or person),e.g.:,The boy,eats,the stone,.,The boy,ate,the stone,.,The boys,have,eaten,the stone,.,Infinite VP,: (unaffected by tense, or person),e.g.:,You are the last person I want,to see,.,Kissed,by mosquitoes, I feel /felt itchy.,VPs that might be misinterpreted,：,to pull ones leg,to bring down the house,to pull up ones socks,He is easily,taken in.,See the following page for the answers.,VPs that might be misinterpreted,：,to pull ones leg,：,开某人的玩笑,to bring down the house,：,震耳欲聋的声响,to pull up ones socks,：,鼓起勇气,He is easily,taken in.,：,他极易,上当受骗,。,3.,AdjP,(adjective phrase,形容词短语,),：,(modifier) + Adjective + (compliment),e.g.:,The College Entrance Examinations of this,year were,extremely easy,.,English grammar learning is,too boring to be enjoyable,.,I am,more than happy to accept your invitation to dinner,.,4.,AdvP,(adverb phrase,副词短语,),：,(modifier) + Adverb + (modifier),e.g.:,We live,far away from downtown Chengdu,.,Good table manner means that you have to eat,in such a way that no noise emits,.,5.,PrepP,(prepositional phrase,介词短语,),：,(modifier) + preposition + compliment,e.g.:,Dont be a giant,of words, but a dwarf,of deeds,.,Boys revolve,around girls, just like the Earth,around the Sun,.,D) Clauses and Sentences:,Theoretically, a,sentence ,a,clause, because a sentence can be formed by two or more clauses.,However, in many cases, a clause,can be,a sentence. For instance:,“,I know it,”,is an independent, simple clause, but it is also a simple sentence.,A sentence (and clause) has a structure of “subject + predicate”.,Types of clauses:,1) Independent Clause vs. Dependent Clause:,I know it,.,vs.,You know that,I know it,.,3) Main Clause vs. Subordinate Clause:,The police says,that the driver license,I have,is a fake.,4) Finite Clause, Non-finite Clause,Verbless,Clause,Non-finites are those with infinite VPs:,Remember,to tell any visitor that Im not at home,.,Did you remember,telling him that I wasnt at home,?,Everyone comes into the world,kicking and screaming,.,Blinded, lovers see each other in rosy glasses.,Verbless,:,Careless,I missed my step on the stairs.,Sentences are generally the highest unit studied by grammarians.,Types of sentences:,1) Full sentence vs. Minor sentence (,不完全句,),A:,“,Hi, hows it going,?,”,B:,“,Living,!,”,Referee:,“,On your marks,!,Ready,!,Go,!,”,Simple, compound, complex sentences:,Compound sentence (,复合句，并列句,),：,I dont agree with you,but,Ill give my life to defend your right of saying it,.,Complex sentence (,复杂句,),：,What the teachers told us in school,is not the same as,what it is in the society,.,这个句子是什么句：,One more step forward, and you are dead,!,Compound-complex sentence,：,We dont care,what your say, but,what you do.,This is the end of Lecture One.,Please preview:,第,4,、,5,讲：名词、名词属格,