心理语言学chapter-3

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,The,complex neuromuscular sequencing,involved in language shows that the,co-ordination,required is perhaps impossible without,biological adaptations,.,Human brain and vocal tract,have a number of slightly unusual features,partial adaptations,of the body to the production of language.,人体呼吸系统结构图,Mouth and lungs,Human mouth,: relatively small, can be opened and shut rapidly-make it simple to pronounce sounds P, B.,Human teeth,: even in heightform an unbroken barrier, upright, not slanting outwards, the top and bottom set meet. Even-spaced, equal-sized teeth which touch one another are valuable for the articulation of some sounds (S, F, V, SH, TH),Human lips,: muscles are more developed and show more intricate interlacing.,Human tongue,: thick, muscular and mobile. The size of the mouth cavity can be varied allowing a range of vowels to be pronounced.,Human larynx,喉,: simpler in structure. Air can move freely past and then out without being hindered.,Human lungs,: during speech the breathing rhythm is altered quite noticeably without apparent discomfort to the speaker.,signs of adaptation to speech,It seems that there are clear indications in the mouth, larynx and lungs that we speak naturally.,Human brain,大脑,小脑,脑干,胼胝体,Cerebrum 大脑,the largest area.,represents over 80 percent of the brain by weight.,surface is pale gray, wrinkled, and marked by furrows called,fissures,.,one large fissure runs from front to back dividing the cerebrum into two halves called the,cerebral,hemispheres,.,controls,thinking, memory, speech, and muscular movement,大脑：是脑的最高层部分，也是人脑中最复杂最重要的神经中枢。人脑的平均重量在1550克左右，仅占体重的2-3，然而它的血流量却是全身的20，消耗的氧气是全身的25。原因就在于人脑高度发达的大脑皮层。,Cerebellum,小脑,is located just below the rear part of the cerebrum.,coordinates every movement,.,monitors impulses from nerve endings in the muscles.,modifies and coordinates commands to swing a golf club, smooth a dancers footsteps, and allow a hand to bring a cup to the lips without spilling its contents.,may also store the memory of rote movements, such as touch, typing and tying a shoelace.,小脑：位于大脑和枕叶的下方，在脑干之后。主要功能是：和大脑皮质运动区共同控制肌肉的运动，调节姿势和身体的平衡。,Brain Stem 脑干,the oldest and deepest part of the brain,centre of,sensory,reception,monitors vital body,functions,such as breathing, heartbeat and body temperature,脑干：位于脊髓的上端。由脊髓传至脑的神经冲动，先传到脑干，再由脑干传至大脑。它对维持觉醒和抑制、过滤各感觉器官传入的信息起着重要的作用。主要功能是维持个体生命的心跳、呼吸、消化、体温、睡眠等重要生理活动。,人体脑结构图,脑感觉中枢分区,Left and Right Hemisphere Processing,The left and right hemispheres of the human brain process information differently,LEFT HEMISPHERE FUNCTIONS,RIGHT HEMISPHERE,FUNCTIONS,Integrates many inputs at once,Deals with inputs one at a time.,Processes information in a linear fashion,Processes information more diffusely and simultaneously.,Deals with time.,Deals with space.,Responsible for verbal expression,Responsible for gestures, facial movements and body language.,Responsible for arithmetic operations,Responsible for relational and mathematical operations,Specializes in recognizing words and numbers,Specializes in recognizing places, faces, objects, and music.,Does logical and analytical thinking.,Does intuitive and holistic thinking.,The seat of reason.,The seat of passion and dreams.,Crucial side for wordsmiths and engineers,Crucial side for artists, craftspeople, and musicians,大脑的左右半球分工：自从16世纪，笛卡尔提出“心是一个、大脑为何是两个？” 这一疑问后，世界各国的生物学家开始对大脑机能的分工，最后发现了大脑左右半球分别担任着不同的工作：,左脑主管抽象思维,，具体有：辨认时间、计算、逻辑分析、理解、听觉、语言（议论、听、说、读、写）等。,右脑主管形象思维,，具体有：认识空间、感受音乐、情感等。,Experiments: Which hemisphere controls speech?,Daxs hypothesis,: 1836. Paralysis of the right side of the body was often associated with loss of speech / paralysis of leftusu. talk naturally., LH controls speech.,Wadas sodium amytal test,(巴比妥酸盐测试) : 1940s. Count loud while barbiturate is injected into an artery carrying blood to one side of the brain. to see whether it will disturb vital speech areas.,Dichotic listening tests,（二分听力法测试）: 1960s. The subject wears headphones, and is played two different words simultaneously, one into each ear. Right ear, more accurately.,LH is better at processing linguistic signalsdominant one for speech.,Electro-diagnosis,: 1970s. Electrodes attached to the skull to measure electrical activity in the area beneath. Spoken words produce a greater response in LH. Noise RH.,The majority(90%) of normal human beings have speech located,primarily in LH,.,The location of speech centers in LH seems to be linked to,right-handedness,. But most left-handers also have language controlled predominantly by LH.,Must all speech processing be located in one hemisphere?,Ten patients in Montreal had speech abilities in both hemisphere.,left-handed/ambidextrous,RH,contains a,limited potential for language：,normally latent, but can be activated if needed.,(,Remove LH, then speechless, later acquire a limited vocabulary & comprehend a certain amount,.),Patients with RH damage have difficulty with,intonation, & understanding jokes/metaphors,.,Split-brain patients,: in severe epilepsy, sever the major links b/t two hemisphere. Show an object to left visual field (relayed to RH), but the patient can name the object.,RH may cope with simple naming problems, though unable to cope with syntax. disputes: transferred by a ,back route,Lateralization,or location of language in one half of the brain is a definite, biological characteristic of humans. Most neurologists agree that language is mainly restricted to one hemisphere.,Further localization of speech: controversial,All the evidence available was derived from brain-damaged patients. Yet,injured brains,may not be representative of normal ones.,A wound in one place may trigger off severe speech problems in one person, but only marginally affect the speech of another.,Maybe speech can be ,re-located, away from the damaged area. There are possibly ,reserve speech areas,which are kept for use in emergencies.,Brocas area vs. Wernickes area,In front of/ above left ear,Around/under left ear,Brocas area vs. Wernickes area,Observations：,Phineas Gage,: 1848, four-foot iron bar, in the front left-hand section of his head. 20 years till death. His personality became worse, but his language was unaffected.,the,front part of brain,is not crucially involved in language.,Broca,: 1861, French surgeon, post-mortem, two patients had severe speech defects, with significant damage in front of, and slightly above, the left ear. ,Brocas area,is important for speech.,Experiments:,Electrical stimulation,: 1950s, Canadian surgeons Penfield & Roberts, applied a minute electric current to different parts of the exposed brain, to distinguish the area of brain which is involved in articulation of speech.,Findings: The ,primary somatic motor area, situated in front of the central fissure, controls all voluntary bodily movements in an upside-down manner, with the,control of mouth further down,. (p57),*The bodily control system in,animals,: much the same. However, in humans, a disproportionate amount of space is allotted to the area controlling,hands & mouth,.,Brocas area vs. Wernickes area,Broca area,(in front of and just above the left ear): damage to Brocas area frequently hinders speech production.,Wernickes area,(around and under the left ear): damage to Wernickes area often destroys speech comprehension.,Paul Broca Carl Wernicke,Over-simplification,:,Language-related areas of the brain,Broca aphasics:,nonfluent,agrammatical,unimpaired,comprehension,Wernicke aphasics:,fluent (logorrheic),impaired meanings,neologisms,severely impaired,comprehension,Over-simplification:,Serious damage to,either,area usually harms,all,aspects of speech.,There are cases of damage to Brocas or Wernickes area where they suffers,no,language disorder.,Someones speech may be badly affected by a brain injury, even though this does,not apparently involve,the two language areas.,There may be,more variation,in the location of brain areas, which varies from person to person.,There may be,deeper interconnections,.,Humans have larger prefrontal cortex(前额皮质) than other primates.,Other experiments: language & brain,Brain scan,: blood surges in the brain when someone uses language.,Radioactive water,injected into a vein: the results showed strong differences between various tasks. (Simple tasks,difficult tasks, different areas became active. With practice, the activity grew less.),Pinpointing only the activity relevant to speech is difficult, especially as,deeper connections,are turning out to be as important as those near the,surface,.,Ultra-sound,: monitor the flow in blood vessels.,Connectionism(联通主义),: connections matter quite as much as locations. Neurons（神经元） participating in language-related cell assemblies cluster to a high degree. Multiple parallel links are the norm in language.,Performance of a complex task requires an integrated ensemble of brain regions.,Multiplicity of integrative processes in speech production & comprehension,In speech, at least three processes take place simultaneously:,Sounds,are uttered;,Phrases,are activated in their phonetic form ready for use;,The rest,of the sentence is planned.,1. Sounds are uttered,*Complexity in pronouncing words: (GEESE) (GEES),1.,G,-sound in G,EE,SE vs. G,OO,SE: anticipate EE &,alter G,2.,EE,- sound in GEE,S,E vs. GEE,Z,ER: shorter, anticipate S &,alter EE,A speaker does not just utter a sequence of separate elements. Instead he executes a series of,overlapping actions,in which the preceding sound is significantly influenced by the sound which follows it.,Such overlapping requires considerable,neuromuscular co-ordination, particularly as the rate of speech is often quite fast. (200 syllables a minute),2. Phrases are activated in their phonetic form ready for use,Slips of the tongue,:,PI,TCH,AND STRE,SS,PI,SS,AND STRE,TCH,枫叶红了 红叶疯了,3. The rest of the sentence is planned,Sometimes, sentences are structurally complex, requiring the speaker & hearer to remember quite intricate,interdependencies,between clauses.,IF,EITHER,THE BABY FALL,S,DOWNSTAIRS,OR,THE CAT,IS,SICK,THEN,I SHALL,EITHER,RESIGN,OR,GO MAD.,(IF.THEN.)(EITHER.OR.)(BABY FALL,S),(CAT,IS,),Conclusion,In most human utterances, the amount of,simultaneous,planning and activity is so great that it seems likely that humans are,specially constructed,to deal with this type of co-ordination.,But how do humans manage to keep utterances in the,right order,? (misordering in speech of brain-damaged patients: GORENA,ORANGE),Lenneberg(1967) suggests that correct sequencing is based on an underlying rhythmic principle, some underlying,biological beat.,(normal rate of uttering syllables: 6 syllables per second),Intelligence, sex and heredity,How does language relate to,intelligence,?,Certain aspects of intelligence, such as judgments of,space & time, are largely,independent,of language.,(,Williams Syndrome,: lack spatial awareness, but speech is fluent),