Chapter 10 Time-Series Analysis - CFA Institute

,Click to edit Master title style,Click to edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,#,Click to edit Master title style,Click to edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,#,Time-series analysis,Basic time series,Data on the outcome of a variable or variables in different time periods are known as time-series data.,Time-series data are prevalent in finance and can be particularly challenging because,they are likely to violate the underlying assumptions of linear regression.,Residual errors are correlated instead of being uncorrelated, leading to inconsistent coefficient estimates.,The mean and/or variance of the explanatory variables may change over time, leading to invalid regression results.,Example of a basic time series known as an autoregressive process:,2,Trend analysis,The most basic form of time-series analysis examines trends that are sustained movements in the variable of interest in a specific direction.,Trend analysis often takes one of two forms:,Linear trend analysis, in which the dependent variable changes at a constant rate over time.,Ex: if,b,0,=3,and,b,1, then the predicted value of,y,after three periods is,2. Log-linear trend analysis, in which the dependent variable changes at an exponential rate over time or constant growth at a particular rate,Ex: if,b,0,and,b,1, then the predicted value of,y,after three periods is,3,Linear or log-linear?,How do we decide between linear and log-linear trend models?,Is the estimated relationship persistently above or below the trend line?,Are the error terms correlated?,We can diagnose these by examining plots of the trend line, the observed data, and the residuals over time.,4,Trend models and serial correlation,Are the results of our trend model estimation valid?,Trend models, by their very construction, are likely to exhibit serial correlation.,In the presence of serial correlation, our linear regression estimates are inconsistent and potentially invalid.,Use the DurbinWatson test to establish whether there is serial correlation in the estimated model.,If so, it may be necessary to transform our data or use other estimation techniques.,5,Autoregressive time-series models,Abbreviated as AR(,p,) models, the,p,indicates how many lagged values of the dependent variable are used and is known as the “order” of the model.,6,Covariance-stationary series,A time series is said to be covariance stationary if its mean and variance do not change over time.,Time series that are not covariance stationary have linear regression estimates that are invalid and have no economic meaning.,For a time series to be stationary,The expected value of the series must be finite and constant across time.,The variance of the series must be finite and constant across time.,The covariance of the time series with itself must be finite and constant for all intervals over all periods across time.,Visually, we can inspect the time-series model for a mean and variance that appear stationary as an initial screen for likely stationarity.,7,Residual autocorrelation,We can use the autocorrelation of the residuals from our estimated time-series model to assess model fit.,The autocorrelation between one time-series observation and another one at distance,k,in time is known as the,k,th order autocorrelation.,A correctly specified autoregressive model will have residual autocorrelations that do not differ significantly from zero.,Testing procedure:,Estimate the AR model and calculate the error terms (residuals).,Estimate the autocorrelations for the error terms (residuals).,Test to see whether the autocorrelations are statistically different from zero.,This is a,t,-test, which, if the null hypothesis of no correlation is rejected, mandates modification of the model or data.,A failure to reject the null indicates that the model is statistically valid.,8,Mean reversion,A series is mean reverting if its values tend to fall when they are above the mean and rise when they are below the mean.,For an AR(1),the values will,Stay constant when,Rise when,Fall when,9,Multiperiod forecasts,We can use the chain rule of forecasting to gain multiperiod forecasts with an AR(,p,) model.,10,In- and out-of-sample forecasting,In-sample forecast errors are simply the residuals from a fitted time series, whereas out-of-sample forecast errors are the difference between predicted values from outside the sample period and the actual values once realized.,An in-sample forecast uses the fitted model to obtain predicted values within the time period used to estimate model parameters.,An out-of-sample forecast uses the estimated model parameters to forecast values outside of the time period covered by the sample.,In both cases, the forecast error is the difference between the forecast and the realized value of the variable.,Ideally, we will select models based on out-of-sample forecasting error.,Model accuracy is generally assessed by using the root mean squared error criterion.,Calculate all the errors, square them, calculate the average, and then take the square root of that average.,The model with the lowest mean-squared error is judged the most accurate.,11,Coefficient instability,Time-series coefficient estimates can be unstable across time.,A,ccordingly, sample period selection becomes critical to estimating valuable models.,This instability can also affect model estimation because changes in the underlying time-series process can mean that different time-series models work better over different time periods.,Ex. A basic AR(1) model may work well in one period, but an AR(2) may fit better in another period. If we combine the two periods, we are likely to select either the AR(1) or AR(2) model for the combined time span, thereby poorly fitting at least one time span of data.,There are no clear-cut rules for selecting an appropriate time frame for a particular analysis.,Rely on basic sampling theory,D,ont use two clearly different populations.,Rely on basic time-series properties ,D,ont mix stationary and nonstationary series or series with different mean or variance terms.,The longer the sample period ,T,he more likely the samples come from different populations.,12,Random walks,An AR(1) series where,b,0,=0,and,b,1,=1,is known as a random walk because the best prediction for tomorrow is the value today plus a random error term.,Very prevalent in finance,Undefined mean-reversion level because,b,0,/(1 ,b,1,) = 0/0,undefined,Not covariance stationary,There is another common variation, known as a random walk with a drift, where,b,0,is a constant number that is not zero.,13,Unit roots,For an AR(1) time series to be covariance stationary, the absolute value of the,b,1,coefficient must be less than 1.,When the absolute value of,b,1,is,1, the time series is said to have a unit root.,Because a random walk is defined as having,b,1,= 1, all random walks have a unit root.,We cannot estimate a linear regression and then test for,b,1,= 1,because the estimation itself is invalid.,Instead, we conduct a DickeyFuller test, which is available in most common statistics packages, to determine if we have a unit root.,14,Unit roots and estimation,15,Smoothing models,These models remove short-term fluctuations by smoothing out a time series.,An,n,-period moving average is calculated as,Consider the returns on a given bond index as,x,0,= 0.12 ,x,-1,= 0.14,x,-2,= 0.13,x,-3,= 0.2.,What is the three-period moving-average return for one period ago (t = 1)?,What is the three-period moving-average return for this period (t = 0)?,16,Moving-average time-series models,17,Determining the order of a MA(,q,),18,Lag,Autocorrelation,t,-Statistic,1,1.4609,6.8912,2,1.4384,5.4589,3,1.4589,6.1204,4,0.9875,0.2345,5,0.0356,0.0132,AR(,p,) vs. MA(,q,),To determine whether a time series is an AR(,p,) or a MA(,q,), examine the autocorrelations.,The autocorrelations for an AR model will generally begin as large values and gradually decline.,The autocorrelations for a MA model will drop dramatically after,q,lags are reached, identifying both the MA process and its order.,19,seasonality,Time series that show regular patterns of movement within a year across years.,Seasonal lags are most often included as a lagged value one year before the prior value.,We detect such patterns through the autocorrelations in the data.,For quarterly data, the fourth autocorrelation will not be statistically zero if there is quarterly seasonality.,For monthly, the 12th, and so on.,To correct for seasonality, we can include an additional lagged term to capture the seasonality.,For quarterly data, we would include a prior year quarterly seasonal lag as,20,Forecasting with seasonal lags,21,Autoregressive Moving-Average models,It is possible for a time series to have both AR and MA processes in it, leading to a class of models known as ARMA (,p,q,) models (and beyond).,22,Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity,Heteroskedasticity is the dependence of the error term variance on the independent variable.,23,Predicting variance,24,Cointegration,Two time series are cointegrated when they have a financial or economic relationship that prevents them from diverging without bound in the long run.,We will often formulate models that include more than one time series.,If any time series in a regression contains a unit root, the ordinary least squares estimates may be invalid.,If both time series have a unit root,and,they are cointegrated, the error term will be stationary and we can proceed with caution to estimate the relationship via ordinary least squares and conduct valid hypothesis tests.,The caution arises because the regression coefficients represent the long-term relationship between the variables and may not be useful for short-term forecasts.,We can test for cointegration using either an EngleGranger or DickeyFuller test.,25,Selecting an appropriate time-series model,Focus On: Regression Output,You are modeling the rate of growth in the money supply of a developing country using 100 years of annual data. You have estimated an AR(1) model and used the residuals to form the table to the right.,Is the AR(1) model sufficient?,If not, how would you modify it?,26,Lag,Autocorrelation,t,-Statistic,1,0.0699,1.3019,2,0.1007,0.1985,3,0.0964,1.6370,4,0.0556,8.0553,5,0.0377,0.1105,6,0.0933,0.9724,Summary,Most financial data are sampled over time and, accordingly, can be modeled using a special class of estimations known as time-series models.,Time-series models in which the value in a given period depends on values in prior periods, are known as autoregressive, or AR models.,Time-series models in which the value in a given period depends on the error values from prior periods, are known as moving average, or MA models.,Models whose error variance changes as a function of the independent variable are known as conditional heteroskedastic models.,For an AR dependency, these are known as ARCH models.,27,