Criticalrealism批判现实主义

Criticalrealism 批判现实主义Inthephilosophyofperception,criticalrealismisthetheorythatsomeofoursense-data(forexample,thoseofprimaryqualities)cananddoaccuratelyrepresentexternalobjects,properties,andevents,whileotherofoursense-data(forexample,thoseofsecondaryqualitiesandperceptualillusions)donotaccuratelyrepresentanyexternalobjects,properties,andevents.Criticalrealismreferstoseveralschoolsofthought.TheseincludetheAmericancriticalrealists(RoyWoodSellars,GeorgeSantayana,andArthurLovejoy)andabroadermovementincludingBertrandRussellandC.D.Broad.k加血咤如TheCanadianJesuitBernardLonergandevelopedacomprehensivecriticalrealistphilosophyandthisunderstandingofcriticalrealismdominatesNorthAmericasCatholicUniversities.IntheUK,criticalrealismgenerallyreferstoaphilosophicalapproachtothesocialandnaturalworld-RoyBhaskarsworkisparticularlywellassociatedwiththisapproach.Thetermisalsousedbyseveralpeopleinthescience-religioninterfacecommunity.AmericancriticalrealismTheAmericancriticalrealistmovementwasaresponsebothtodirectrealism(especiallyinitsrecentincarnationasnewrealism),aswellastoidealismandpragmatism.Inverybroadterms,Americancriticalrealismwasaformofrepresentativerealism,inwhichthereareobjectsthatstandasmediatorsbetweenindependentrealobjectsandperceivers.Oneinnovationwasthatthesemediatorsarentideas(Britishempiricism),butproperties,essences,orcharactercomplexes.BritishrealismSimilardevelopmentsoccurredinBritain.MajorfiguresincludedSamuelAlexander,JohnCookWilson,H.A.Prichard,H.H.Price,andC.D.Broad.ContemporarycriticalrealismGeneralphilosophyCriticalrealismispresentlymostcommonlyassociatedwiththeworkofRoyBhaskar.Bhaskardevelopedageneralphilosophyofsciencethathedescribedastranscendentalrealism,andaspecialphilosophyofthehumansciencesthathecalledcriticalnaturalism.Thetwotermswerecombinedbyotherauthorstoformtheumbrellatermcriticalrealism.Transcendentalrealismattemptstoestablishthatinorderforscientificinvestigationtotakeplace,theobjectofthatinvestigationmusthavereal,manipulable,internalmechanismsthatcanbeactualisedtoproduceparticularoutcomes.Thisiswhatwedowhenweconductexperiments.Thisstandsincontrasttoempiricistscientistsclaimthatallscientistscandoisobservetherelationshipbetweencauseandeffect.Whilstempiricism,andpositivismmoregenerally,locatecausalrelationshipsatthelevelofevents,CriticalRealismlocatesthematthelevelofthegenerativemechanism,arguingthatcausalrelationshipsareirreducibletoempiricalconstantconjunctionsofDavidHumesdoctrine;inotherwords,aconstantconjunctiverelationshipbetweeneventsisneithersufficientnorevennecessarytoestablishacausalrelationship.Theimplicationofthisisthatscienceshouldbeunderstoodasanongoingprocessinwhichscientistsimprovetheconceptstheyusetounderstandthemechanismsthattheystudy.Itshouldnot,incontrasttotheclaimofempiricists,beabouttheidentificationofacoincidencebetweenapostulatedindependentvariableanddependentvariable.Positivism/falsificationarealsorejectedduetotheobservationthatitishighlyplausiblethatamechanismwillexistbuteithera)gounactivated,b)beactivated,butnotperceived,orc)beactivated,butcounteractedbyothermechanisms,whichresultsinithavingunpredictableeffects.Thus,non-realisationofapositedmechanismcannot(incontrasttotheclaimofpositivists)betakentosignifyitsnon-existence.Criticalnaturalismarguesthatthetranscendentalrealistmodelofscienceisequallyapplicabletoboththephysicalandthehumanworlds.However,whenwestudythehumanworldwearestudyingsomethingfundamentallydifferentfromthephysicalworldandmustthereforeadaptourstrategytostudyingit.Criticalnaturalismthereforeprescribessocialscientificmethodwhichseekstoidentifythemechanismsproducingsocialevents,butwitharecognitionthattheseareinamuchgreaterstateoffluxthantheyareinthephysicalworld(ashumanstructureschangemuchmorereadilythanthoseof,say,aleaf).Inparticular,wemustunderstandthathumanagencyismadepossiblebysocialstructuresthatthemselvesrequirethereproductionofcertainactions/pre-conditions.Further,theindividualsthatinhabitthesesocialstructuresarecapableofconsciouslyreflectingupon,andchanging,theactionsthatproducethemapracticethatisinpartfacilitatedbysocialscientificresearch.CriticalrealismhasbecomeaninfluentialmovementinBritishsociologyandsocialscienceingeneralasareactionto,andreconsilationof,so-calledpostmoderncritiques.DevelopmentsSinceBhaskarmadethefirstbigstepsinpopularisingthetheoryofcriticalrealisminthe1970s,ithasbecomeoneofthemajorstrandsofsocialscientificmethod-rivallingpositivism/empiricism,andpost-structuralism/relativism/interpretivism.Aneditedvolume,CriticalRealism:EssentialReadings,iscurrentlythemostappreciatedandavailablereaderincriticalrealism.ThereisalsoaJournalofCriticalRealism,whichpublishesarticlesonthetheoryandresultsofthepracticeofcriticalrealistsocialscience.Seealso,JournalfortheTheoryofSocialBehaviour,publishedbyBlackwell,whichalsopublishestheoreticalandempiricalrealistsocialscience.Alivelyemaildiscussiononcriticalrealismcanbejoinedonthecriticalrealisme-maillist.Sincehisdevelopmentofcriticalrealism,Bhaskarhasgoneontodevelopaphilosophicalsystemhecallsdialecticalcriticalrealism,whichismostclearlyoutlinedinhisweightybook,Dialectic:thepulseoffreedom.Bhaskarisfrequentlycriticisedforthedensityandobscurityofhiswriting.Thatsaid,somereadersmayactuallyappreciatehismeticulouslinguisticprecision,whichcanbetimeconsumingtoread,butreadproperly,itispossibletounderstandthepreciseandunambiguousmeaningbehindhiswritingcitationneeded.AnaccessibleintroductionwaswrittenbyAndrewCollier.AndrewSayerhaswrittenaccessibletextsoncriticalrealisminsocialscience.Danermarketal.havealsoproducedanaccessibleaccount.MargaretArcherisassociatedwiththisschool,asistheecosocialistwriterPeterDickens.DavidGraeberreliesoncriticalrealism,whichheunderstandsasaformofheracliteanphilosophy,emphasizingfluxandchangeoverstableessences,inhisanthropologicalbookontheconceptofvalue,Towardananthropologicaltheoryofvalue:thefalsecoinofourowndreams.RobertWillmotthasdevelopedtherealist(morphogenetic)socialtheoryofMargaretArcherinhisEducationPolicyandRealistSocialTheory:primaryteachers,child-centredphilosophyandthenewmanagerialism,publishedbyRoutledge.TheologicalcriticalrealismCriticalrealismisemployedbyacommunityofscientiststurnedtheologians.TheyareinflueneedbythescientistturnedphilosopherMichaelPolanyi.PolanyisideasweretakenupenthusiasticallybyT.F.Torraneewhoseworkinthisareahasinflueneedmanytheologianscallingthemselvescriticalrealists.ThiscommunityincludesJohnPolkinghorne,IanBarbour,andArthurPeacocke.TheaimofthegroupistoshowthatthelanguageofscieneeandChristiantheologyaresimilar,formingastartingpointforadialoguebetweenthetwo.AlisterMcGrathandWentzelvanHuyssteen(thelatterofPrincetonTheologicalSeminary)arerecentcontributorstothisstrand.N.T.Wright,NewTestamentscholarandAnglicanBishopofDurhamalsowritesonthistopic:Iproposeaformofcriticalrealism.Thisisawayofdescribingtheprocessofknowingthatacknowledgestherealityofthethingknown,assomethingotherthantheknower(hencerealism),whilefullyacknowledgingthattheonlyaccesswehavetothisrealityliesalongthespirallingpathofappropriatedialogueorconversationbetweentheknowerandthethingknown(hencecritical).(TheNewTestamentandthePeopleofGod,p.35)N.T.WrightsfellowbiblicalscholarJamesDunnencounteredthethoughtofBernardLonerganasmediatedthroughBenMeyer.MuchofNorthAmericancriticalrealismlaterusedintheserviceoftheologyhasitssourceinthethoughtofLonerganratherthanPolanyi.