政治与媒体

The Media of Great Britain and AmericaGreat Britain:7.1 The Media1. Newspapers报纸: British newspapers can be divided into three kinds: quality newspapers(高质量肃穆报纸)， popular newspaper(通俗报纸)， and mid-market newspapers(中间市场报)。 （1）. Quality newspapers are directed at readers who want full information on a wide range of public matters. There are 5 quality dailies (Financial Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Independent, and The Times) and 4 quality Sundays (Sunday Telegraph, The Independent on Sunday, The Observer, and The Sunday Times).（2）. Popular newspapers appeal to people wanting news of a more entertaining character, presented more concisely. There are 3 popular dailies (Daily Mirror, Daily Star and The Sun) and 3 popular Sundays(News of the world, Sunday Mirror, and The people).2. PeriodicalsThe most important are The Economist, New Statesman and Society, and Spectator.3. RadioThe BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) World Service broadcasts international news world wide, using English and 38 other languages.BBC is the largest and dominant broadcasting corporation in Britain. BBC World Service broadcasts international news worldwide in 38 other languages. The BBC is state-run and it is financed from the sales of television licences (出售电视收视证).BBC Network Radio serves（广播网） an audience of 30 million a week in Britain, broadcasting around 38,000 hours of programmes each year on its 5 networks. BBC 4. TelevisionThere are 4 national channels: BBC1, BBC2, ITV (independent Television) and Channel 4 (C4).5. News agencies The principal news agencies in Britain are Reuters based in London, the Press Association and Extel Financial Ltd / AFP-Extel News Ltd. America:7.2 Media of the United StatesMedia of the United States consist of several different types of communications media: television, radio, cinema, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based Web sites. The U.S. also has a strong music industry. Many of the media are controlled by large for-profit corporations who reap revenue from advertising, subscriptions, and sale of copyrighted material. American media conglomerates tend to be leading global players, generating large revenues as well as large opposition in many parts of the world. Further deregulation and convergence are under way, leading to mega-mergers, further concentration of media ownership, and the emergence of multinational media conglomerates. Critics allege that localism, local news and other content at the community level, media spending and coverage of news, and diversity of ownership and views have suffered as a result of these processes of media concentration.1Theories to explain the success of such companies include reliance on certain policies of the American federal government or a tendency to natural monopolies in the industry. See Media bias in the United States.The organization Reporters Without Borders publishes an annual Press Freedom Index; in 2010 the US was ranked 20th out of 178 countries.1. RadioAmerican radio broadcasts in two bands: FM and AM. Some stations are only talk radio featuring interviews and discussions while music radio stations broadcast one particular type of music: Top 40, hip-hop, country, etc. Radio broadcast companies have become increasingly consolidated in recent years. National Public Radio is the nations primary public radio network, but most radio stations are commercial and profit-oriented.Talk radio as a political medium has also exploded in popularity during the 1990s, due to the 1987 repeal of the Fairness Doctrine, which meant that stations no longer had to balance their day by programming alternative points of view.The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)in 1970 had limited the number of radio station one person or company could own to 1 AM and 1 FM locally and 7 AM and 7 FM stations nationally. See IBOC and HD Radio.A new form of radio that is gaining popularity is satellite radio. The two biggest subscriptions based radio services are Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio, which have recently both merged together to form Sirius XM Radio. Unlike terrestrial radio music channels are commercial free and other channels feature very minimal commercials. Satellite radio also is not regulated by the FCC.Arbitron, a consumer research company, provides ratings (similar to the Nielsen ratings) for national and local radio stations in the United States.2. TVNinety-nine percent of American households have at least one television and the majority of households have more than one. The four in the U.S. are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and Fox. Public television has a far smaller role than in most other countries. However, a number of states, including West Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and South Carolina, among others, do have state-owned public broadcasting authorities which operate and fund all public television stations in their respective states. The income received from the government is insufficient to cover expenses and stations also rely on corporate sponsorships and viewer contributions.3. NewspapersNewspapers have declined in their influence and penetration into American households over the years. The U.S. does not have a national paper. The New York Times and the Wall Street Journal are sold in most U.S. cities.Although the Times primary audience has always been the people of New York City, the New York Times has gradually become the dominant national newspaper of record. Apart from its daily nationwide distribution, the term means that back issues are archived on microfilm by every decent-sized public library in the nation, and the Times articles are often cited by both historians and judges as evidence that a major historical event occurred on a certain date. The Los Angeles Times and the Wall Street Journal are also newspapers of record to a lesser extent. Although USA Today has tried to establish itself as a national paper, it has been widely derided by the academic world as the McPaper and is not subscribed to (let alone archived) by most libraries.Apart from the newspapers just mentioned, all major metropolitan areas have their own local newspapers. Typically, a metropolitan area will support at most one or two major newspapers, with many smaller publications targeted towards particular audiences. Although the cost of publishing has increased over the years, the price of newspapers has generally remained low, forcing newspapers to rely more on advertising revenue and on articles provided by a major wire service, such as the Associated Press or Reuters, for their national and world coverage.With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families.Most general-purpose newspapers are either being printed one time a week, usually on Thursday or Friday, or are printed daily. Weekly newspapers tend to have much smaller circulation and are more prevalent in rural communities or small towns. Major cities often have alternative weeklies to complement the mainstream daily paper(s), for example, New York Citys Village Voice or Los Angeles L.A. Weekly, to name two of the most well-known. Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries and papers for local ethnic and social groups.Probably due to competition from other media, the number of daily newspapers in the U.S. has declined over the past half-century, according to Editor & Publisher, the trade journal of American newspapers. In particular, the number of evening newspapers has fallen by almost one-half since 1970, while the number of morning editions and Sunday editions has grown.For comparison, in 1950, there were 1,772 daily papers (and 1,450 or about 70 percent of them were evening papers) while in 2000, there were 1,480 daily papers (and 766or about halfof them were evening papers.)Daily newspaper circulation is also slowly declining in America, partly due to the near-demise of two-newspaper towns, as the weaker newspapers in most cities have folded:The largest newspapers (by circulation) in the United States are USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times.4. MagazinesThanks to the huge size of the English-speaking North American media market, the United States has a large magazine industry with hundreds of magazines serving almost every interest, as can be determined by glancing at any newsstand in any large American city. Most magazines are owned by one of the large media conglomerates or by one of their smaller regional brethren.The U.S. has three leading weekly newsmagazines: Time, Newsweek and U.S. News and World Report. Time and Newsweek are center-left while U.S. News and World Report tends to be center-right. Time is well-known for naming a Person of the Year each year, while U.S. News publishes annual ratings of American colleges and universities.The U.S. also has over a dozen major political magazines.Finally, besides the hundreds of specialized magazines that serve the diverse interests and hobbies of the American people, there are also dozens of magazines published by professional organizations for their members, such as Communications of the ACM (for computer science specialists) and the ABA Journal (for lawyers).5. InternetThe Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free, and charge for access to the rest. Other organizations allow their archives to be freely browsed. It is possible that the latter type obtain more influence, as they are true to the spirit of freedom of information by virtue of making it free. Anyone who has followed external links only to be confronted with a pay to view banner, might attest that the reputations of organizations that charge is not enhanced by their charging policy, particularly when the same information is available from sources that dont charge.The Internet, by means of making available such constantly growing news archives, is, in effect, writing our history as it happens, at a level of detail never before known. While proprietary archives are slowly exposed to the public after many decades, organizations that maintain immediately updating resources have more control over what will be remembered by the general public in the near future.