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1.我唱歌就跑调。,When I sing a song, I always sing off-key.,Chapter Two Main Language Differences Between English and Chinese,2.再跑，就毙了你！,If you escape (or: run away) again, Ill shoot you.,English Emphasizes Structure; Chinese on Meaning,一）隐性(implicit)与显性(explicit),Chinese takes itself implicit, while English takes itself explicit. implicit Chinese and explicit English are reflected on the following aspects.,1 There are not any signs of word classes in Chinese except for several affixes such as “子”、“儿” and so on, and some auxiliary words such as “的”、“地”、“得”）. For example, “打”in the sentence“钟打了十二下” is a verb，but in the phrase“一打鸡蛋”，it is a unit word. “打”itself has no sign of word class. its word class shows itself only in the context. Whats more, Chinese verbs have no signs of tense, voice and mood. Unlike Chinese, quite a number of English words show themselves the words classes. For example, the suffixes such as -ment, -er, -ness, -tion and so on are signs of nouns; while -al, -ful, -ative and the like are signs of adjectives. In English, articles are signs of nouns, and nouns are main body in syntax. The noun as subject naturally decides the forms of the verb as predicate.,2From syntax, a Chinese word doesnt show itself in form as subject, predicate or object and so on, while English personal pronouns and verbs have signs in syntax forms. For example, in the two sentences: “我爱她”and“她爱我”, there are no differences between the subjects “她”and“他”, and the objects “他”and“她” . But in English, nominative and objective are different in function, so they are different in forms. It is so obvious in the following sentences: “I love her.” “She loves me.”,3The predicate should agree with its subject, but there isnt any requirement of their forms. English predicate has to agree with its subject in number, person and tense. For example, in the following sentences: “我是学生，他是学生，我们都是学生。”, all the predicates are “是”, but English are different: “I am a student, she is a student, we all are students.” person depend on the forms of “是”.,Implicit and explicit are the biggest and the most basic differences between English and Chinese grammar. The basic differences result in the a series of different characteristics of the two languages, of which the most important one is that English grammar takes forms as its main characteristic, even dependent of semantic meanings, such as structuralism. But Chinese grammar has to depend on semantic meanings. So the famous linguistist Wang Li says, “As the syntax is concerned, the western languages are ruled by law, while Chinese language is by man.” It is obvious that compared with Chinese, English rules are much more explicit. This is very important, because our thinking mode is also restricted by the form of grammar. In the west world, people are accustomed to acting according to established practice, while Chinese are quite on the contrary, often too flexible.,二）Differences in Thinking Mode,Chinese are accustomed to induction(归纳法), while the western people, to deduction(演绎法). So the subject matter of English writing is usually at the beginning. , while that of Chinese writing is usually at the end, developing according to the order of lead-in, carry-on, shift and summary(启、承、转、合). The Chinese are more good at dealing with things in an overall way, while the western people are better at analysizing things in details.,The Chinese are good at induction, while the western people, at deduction; The Chinese stress collectivism, while the western stress ego (individualism); The Chinese are good at thinking in images, while the western people, at logical thinking; The Chinese are better at poems, while the western people, at science; The Chinese regard the universe as the whole, full of “Tao” and “Qi”, while the western people think it made of atoms, which are dependent and related to each other. The Chinese deal with things just as traditional Chinese medical science, treating a man as the whole, while the western people, just as Western medicine.,The stress on meaning, the whole and induction are also the character of Chinese philosophy, literature (especially poems), music dancing, art, traditional Chinese medical science, Qigong and Chan sect and so on. 神秀说：“身是菩提树，心如明镜台，时时勤拂拭，勿使惹尘埃。”慧能说：“菩提本无树，明镜亦非台，本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。”。无形胜有形才是最高境界。中国哲人皆务心得而轻著述。孔子、老子、庄子都有诸如“大辨不言” 的观点。这种重意（即内涵），而不重形（外在的形式）的文化特性也同样反应到语言的句法结构上。,三） Parataxis（意合）与Hypotaxis形合,As for language, English stress syntax, while Chinese, semantic meaning. A long sentence or a short one doesnt do without its subject. A long sentence usually has one subject and one predicate but many clauses, like a tree, however, very clear, in structure and logic. But on the contrary, Chinese does not give priority to syntax and grammar structure, and does not have so many conjunctions that English has, but stresses inherent relation of the meanings. Thats so-called “English stresses forms, Chinese stresses semantic meanings.,In English, kinds of logical relations between words, phrases and sentences are often expressed with conjunctions, prepositions and so on. All these words are apparent signs of hypotaxis, but in Chinese, kinds of logical relations between words, phrases and sentences are often expressed with inherent logical relations between sentences, with obvious signs. This is why Chinese is so brief and concise. But this also adds difficulty to Chinese-English translation, because Chinese meanings can only be judged from the context. Look at the following sentence： “他不干，我干。”,The meanings of the sentence can be interpreted as follow：（1）假设关系：（如果）他不干，（那么）我（来）干。（2）因果关系：（因为）他不干，（所以）我（才）干。（3）转折关系：他不干，（但是）我干。（4）让步关系：（即使）他不干，我（也）干。So in the course of translation, only by judging from the context, and even the tone of the speaker can the real meaning be expressed correctly. Chinese is a semantic language. For thousands of years, it has been influenced by traditional philosophical and esthetic thoughts of stress on meanings, spirit, strength of character, and has formed a kind of quality of lingual structure which attaches importance to inherent, hidden and vague relations. For instance：,“校长召开大会动员全体老师教育好学生遵守一切规章制度。”,A Chinese sentence can be made up of several phrases, and there is only connection in meanings between them without conjunction in form. by comparison, An English sentence often requires conjunctions, or attributive pronouns/adverbs to connect the sentence into a integrated one in both in form and meaning. For example：,There arent any conjunctions to link the different parts of the sentence.,“枯藤老树昏鸦，小桥流水人家，古道西风瘦马。夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯” （马致远天净沙秋思）,Oer old trees wreathed with rotten vine fly evening crows;Neath tiny bridge beside a cot a clear stream flows;On ancient road in western breeze a lean horse goes. . 许渊冲译,Withered vines hanging on old branches, Returning crows croaking at dusk. A few houses hidden past a narrow bridge, And below the bridge quiet creek running. Down a worn path, in the west wind, A lean horse comes plodding. 丁祖馨等译,1In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth, the earth was formless void and darkness covered the face of the deep, while a wind from God swept over the face of the waters. From The Bible,起初，神创造天地。地是空虚混沌，渊面昏暗；神的灵运行在水面上。,2When Methuselah had lived one hundred and eighty-seven years, he became the father of Lamech. Thus all the days of Methuselah were nine hundred sixty-nine years and he died.,马士撒拉活到187岁，生了拉麦。马士撒拉共活了969岁就死了。,3. 酒不醉人人自醉。,It is not the wine that intoxicates but the drinker who gets himself drunk.,4. 人到醉时放觉醒，醒时难得醉时清。,It is not until one gets drunk that he gets sober and it is difficult for him to get as sober as he gets drunk.,4. If one loves flowers with the same heart that he loves beauties, he feels a special charm in them; if one loves beautiful women with the same heart that he loves flowers, he feels a special tenderness and protective affection. Beautiful women are better than flowers because they understand human language, and flowers are better than beautiful women because they give off fragrance; but if one cannot have both at the same time, he should forsake the fragrant ones and take the talking ones. 林语堂The Importance of Living,以爱美人之心爱花，则领略自饶有别趣；以爱花之心爱美人，则护惜倍有深情。 美人之胜于花者，解语也；花之胜于美人者，生香也。二者不可兼得，舍生香而解语者也。,5In the national rejoicing and pride, the French people send brotherly greetings to their gallant Allies, who, like ourselves and for the same cause, have sustained so many hardships over such a long period, to their heroic armies and to those commanding them, and to all those men and women who, throughout the world, fought, suffered and worked so that the cause of liberty and justice might ultimately prevail.,这么长的一段话实际上是一个句子。主干是the French people send brotherly gatherings，谓语动词send支配着四个“to”引导的间接宾语，即四个“枝”。第一根和第四根“枝”又都形成了两根大枝，这两根大枝各支配一根小枝，即定语从句。法国人民向四方面的人致以兄弟般的问候。这个句子充分显示了英语“一杆多枝，句法结构清晰，逻辑关系清楚，主谓分明”的特点。,在举国欢腾、扬眉吐气的时刻，法国人民向英勇的盟国致以兄弟般的问候。他们和我们一样为了共同的事业，在漫长的岁月中历尽艰难困苦。向广大英勇的盟军指战员致以崇高的敬意。向全世界一切为争取自由和正义的最后胜利而英勇战斗、受尽苦难的兄弟姐妹们致意。,The long sentence is translated into four Chinese ones, without any conjunctions to connect them, which shows the characteristic of Chinese “以意统形”，“以神摄形”，“遗形写神” .,译成汉语为：,This difference between Chinese and English is also shown very clearly in short sentences translation：,1. 再跑,就毙了你！,2. 不去，就打电话。,3. 跑了和尚，跑不了庙。,4. 去也白去。,5. 下雨了。（无主句）,5. It is raining. (多余的it ),1. If you escape (or: run away) again, Ill shoot you.,2. If I dont go there, Ill call/ring you about it. Or: If you dont go, call me about it .,3. The monk may run away, but the temple cant run with him.,4. Even if you go there, there wont be any result.,6. “知己知彼，百战不殆；不知己而知彼，一胜一负；不知己不知彼，每战必殆。”,汉语的非形式链接很明显，若将其中隐含、省略、模糊的东西补上，其形式标记应如下： “（若）知己（又）知彼，（则）百战不殆；（若）不知己而知彼，（则）（将）一胜（及）一负；（若）不知己（又）不知彼，（则）每战（将）必殆。”,The translation by Liu Miqing： “You can fight a hundred battles without defeat if you know the enemy as well as yourself. You will win one battle and lose one battle if you know the enemy but yourself in the dark. You will lose every battle if you leave both the enemy and yourself in the dark.”,从译文中可看出，凡汉语中隐含的成分英语中一个也不能少。而且译文中还用了“you”这虚指主语，汉语中完全不必要。汉语意义的内在衔接形成一种隐约的“意义脉络”，更确切一点，就是古人所说的“文意”、“文气”，汉语正是靠这种“意脉”来组织句子，而不是受“形”的框束。,子曰：“温故而知新，可以为师矣。”,The sentence has neither subject nor conjunction, completely connected by meaning, but you can understand very easily.,Confucius said, “He can be teacher who finds what is new in reviewing what is old.” （丁往道，2008，151）,Note the obvious differences between English and Chinese in the following sentences:,2. 子曰：“见贤思齐焉，见不贤而内自省也。”,Confucius said, “When one sees a virtuous man, one should think of exerting oneself to be like him; when one sees someone who is not virtuous, one should examine oneself.” （丁往道，2008，65）,3. 子曰：“三人行必有我师焉；择其善者而从之，其不善者而改之。”,Confucius said, “Whenever I walk with two other men, I can always find teachers in them. I can learn from their good qualities, and correct those faults in me which are like theirs.” （丁往道，2008，67）,4. 子曰：“其身正，不令而行；其身不正，虽令不从。”,Confucius said, “A man who is upright is obeyed even if he gives no order; a man who is not upright is not obeyed even if he gives orders.” （丁往道，2008，125）,11. 子曰：“唯女子与小人难养也,近之则不逊,远之则怨”,The Master said, “Only women and petty men are hard to deal with. If you become close to them they turn noncompliant. If you keep them at a distance, they turn resentful.” (李天辰，1991，295),12. 俯而视之，则清溪泻雪，石磴穿云，白石为栏，环抱池沿，石桥三港，兽面衔吐。,Looking downwards, they saw a crystal stream cascading as white as snow and stone steps going down through the mist to a pool. This was enclosed by marble balustrades and spanned by a stone bridge ornamented with the heads of beasts with gaping jaws. 杨宪益 译,The Chinese is composed of four-word clauses, without any subjects nor conjunctions, all depending on the meanings to carry on. But English is composed of two long sentences, two subjects added to them so that the relationship of the subjects and predicates is very obvious and the logic relationship is very clear, and the sentence structure is very legible.,In Chinese also exist some nongrammatical sentences. But we can also easily understand the meaning. For example：,1.一锅饭吃了二十多人。,A boiler of meal provided enough meal for more than twenty people.,2.青草吃得羊很肥。,The sheep eat the green grass and grow fairly fat.,这种违反语法的句子只能在表意的汉语里可以，在强调句法结构的表音的英语里是不可能出现的。,Exercises: Review Do the exercises assigned:,
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