Chapter FourSyntax

Chapter From Word to Text 要点精梳1.Introduction 简介1）Definition of syntax句法学定义It refers to the study of the rules governing, the way words are combined to reform sentences.Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical Study. 句法学是指研究语言中此组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的中心。2) Representative approaches to syntax 代表性的语法研究学派Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment .Of sentence structure. In this chapter, the following approaches to syntax will be introduced : the traditional approach , the Structural approach , the generative approach , the functional approach（the Prague school）and the systemic-function grammar(Hollidays approach). 不同的语言理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。本章将要介绍一下几种流派：传统学派，结构主义学派，生成学派，功能学派（布拉格语言学派）和系统功能学派（韩礼德学派）。2.Syntactic Relations The syntactic relation refers to the relation between words in a sentence ,which can be studied from both vertical and latitudinal perspectives .generally speaking ,the syntactic relations include three basic types: positional relation ,relation of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence .the first type belongs to overt relations, while the rest two belong to covert relations .2.句法关系句法关系是指在句子组合中词和词之间的关系，通常可以从水平和垂直两个维度来考查。一般说来，句法关系有三种：位置关系，替代关系和共现关系。第一种关系是显性关系，后两种则是隐性关系。positional relation It refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language . So it is also called word order. It is the basic syntactic relation , and also the requirement of grammatical acceptability and semantic intelligibility of human language.位置关系位置关系是指语言中词的排列顺序。因此位置关系又叫词序。位置关系是任何人类语言中的基本句法关系，也是语言的句法可接受性和语义可以理解性的需求。relation of substitutability It refers to classes of sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in the same sentence.替代关系替代关系是指在同一句子中相同此类或形同词汇集合的词从语法的角度讲可以相互替换。co-occurrence It refers to that words of different sets or classes may permit , or require ,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.共现关系共现关系是指不同词类的不同词汇集合准许另一个词类或集合的词出现构成一个句子或句子的某一个特定部分。traditional approach Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words . The study of sentence formation , therefore , involves a great of the study of word , such as , the classification of words in term of parts of speech , the identification of function of words in terms of subject , predicate ,etc . These parts of speech and function are sometimes called categories.3传统语法学派传统语法认为句子是词的序列。因此句子构成的研究涉及了对词的大量研究。例如，词类是对词进行的分类，主语，谓语是对词的功能的描写，等等。这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。Number, gender and case Number :it is an inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one . Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun . There are usually two terms of number: singular and plural . But language like classical Greek and Arabic have a third number :dual , something like the English both . Chinese is said to have none .数、性和格数：数是指把所指从一个或多与一个中区别开来的曲折范畴。数，主要是名词和代词的范畴。数一般有两种：单数和复数。但是在古希腊语，阿拉伯语等语言中，还有第三种数：双数，类似英语中的both、（双方，两者）。斐济群岛语还有第四种数：三数。汉语中没有数的范畴。Gender : it is a grammatical category dividing nouns into classes basically characterizable by reference to sex . Gender is also mostly a category of nouns and pronoun. In English , the gender distinctions are on the whole natural , determined by the biological gender of the creature . However , exactly speaking , the gender here , means the grammatical gender , which includes feminine , masculine and neuter . The gender in French belongs to grammatical gender .性：性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类列的语法范畴。性主要是名词和代词的范畴。在英语中，性的差别是自然的，由动物本身的生理性别决定。然而，准确地讲，性在这里指的是语法性，语法性主要有阴性、阳性和中性三种。法语中性的范畴就是语法性。 Case：it is an inflectional category , basically of nouns , which typically marks their role in relation to other parts of the sentence . The category of case is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with six distinctions of nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative and ablative . According to Fillmore , case can be divided into thirteen types : agent , experience , instrument , patient , source , goal , locative, time , path , dative, benefactive, comitative and essive . 格：格主要是名词的屈折范畴，它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。格在拉丁语语法里是很显著的。它有六种格：主格，宾格，呼格，属格，与格和离格。根据菲尔墨格可以为十三中：施事，感情，工具，受事，源点，终点，方位，时间，行径，承受，受益，伴随和永存。the grammatical categories of verbs - tense , aspect and mode tense and aspect are the categories of verbs . Tense and aspect are not separated in traditional grammar . 动词的语法范畴-时态、体和语气 时态、体和语气是动词的范畴。在传统语法中，时态和体并不区分。tense Definition : it is inflectional category whose basic role is to indicate the time of an event , etc . In relation to the moment of speaking. Based on the tense system in Latin grammar, English used to be said to have sixteen tense as follow : simple present , simple past , simple future, simple past future , present progressive , past progressive , future progressive , past future progressive , present perfect , past perfect , future perfect , past future perfect , present perfect progressive , past perfect progressive , future perfect progressive , past future perfect progressive .Distinction between tense and time Time is universal concept , which every language is capable of expression . Tense is a linguistic concept , which varies from language to language . 时态时态的定义：时态是表明相对于说话者时刻时间所发生的时间的屈折范畴。基于拉丁语语法的时态系统，一般认为英语有以下十六种时态：一般现在时，一般过去时，一般将来时，一般过去将来时，现在进行时，过去进行时，过去将来时，现在完成时，过去完成时，将来完成时，过去将来完成时，现在完成进行时，过去完成进行时，将来完成进行时，过去将来完成时。时态和时间的区别时间是一个通用的概念，每一种语言都能表达。时态是个语言学概念，不同语言的时态千差万别。Aspect Definition : it is a general term for verbal category that distinguishes the status of events , etc. In relation to specific periods of time , as opposed to their simple location in the present , past , or future . Distinction between tense and aspect The distinction between tense and aspect is that the former is DEICTIC , i.e. Indicating time relative to the time of utterance ; while the latter is not deictic , the time indicated is not relative to the time of utterance , but relative to the time of another event described , or implied, in the narrative . As a result, there are only two tense: present and past. The so-called future tense is not expressed in the same way as these two. That is, it is not expressed by morphology, not y the different forms of the verb, but by various other means . 体体的定义：体是相对于具体时间段而言，是区分事件地位的动词范畴的总称，和简单的现在、过去和将来时间定位相反。时态和体的区别时态和体之间的区别在与：时态是指示性的，也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关；体则不是指示性的，指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系，却与叙述中描写或者暗示的另一件事情的时间相关。所以现在一般认为有两种时态：现在时和过去时。所谓的将来时跟他们并不采用相同的表达方式。将来时不用形态学表达，不用动词的不同形式表达，而是其他手段表达。 Mood Mood is a grammatical category distinguishing modality. Modality is a category covering indication either of a kind of speech act of the degree of certainty with which something is said语气 语气是区别情态的语法范畴。情态就是包含着对一种言语行为或谈及之事的肯定程度的某种提示的范畴。Relations between categories: concord and government When different categories appear together in the same sentence some of them must control the others because of their differences in types and features. There are two major types of control :concord and government.范畴之间的关系：一致与支配 不同的范畴同时出现在一个句子中时，范畴的类别和性质不同，其地位也不同，一些范畴总是要控制另外一些范畴。控制有两种：一致与支配。Concord:It is also called agreement; it is a syntactic relation between words and phrases which are compatible, in a given construction, by virtue of inflections carried by at least one of them. There are types of concord; notioal agreement and grammatical agreement.一致：一致是在一个给定的语言结构中，词与短语之间利用至少他们中的一个所携带的屈折形式相互匹配的语法关系。一只有两种：概念一致和语法一致。Government:it is a syntactic relation of another type of control, which is realized in three possible forms. First, the relation between a head and an object or other complement, second, a relation between such a head and the case of an object; third, a relation elements development in “Government and Binding theory” into a general principle by which elements are assigned by other elements that command them.支配：支配是另一种控制形式的句法关系，支配有三种形式：第一种形式是主词对其宾语和补语的支配。第二种是主语对其支配，第三种是从“管辖和约束理论”发展来的一个一般原则，根据这个原则，语言要素的格是由“成分统制”他们的要素分配的。Structural approach The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the twentieth century. the linguistic theories of this approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.结构主义学派 结构主义学派的创始人是二十世纪初瑞士语言学家费尔迪南.德.索绪尔。结构主义学派理论认为语言单位是在一种结构中相互互联的，不是孤立的。 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations In Saussures view, language is a system of signs, each of consists of two parts, signified and signifier. and the relationship between two parts is arbitrary 组合关系与聚合关系 索绪尔认为语言是一个符号系统，每个符号有两部分组成：所指和能指。这两者之间关系是任意的。 Syntagmatic relation:It is a relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc, e.g. between s,p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts. The syntagmatic relation is also called horizontai relation or chain relation.组合关系：组合关系就是构成同一形式，序列或结构的要素之间的关系，例如同一形式spring中的s，p和r三者之间的关系或者同一结构Bill Hunt中的主语和谓语之间的关系。组合关系又叫做水平关系或链条关系。Paradigmatic relation:It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure. The paradigmatic relation is also called vertical relation or choice relation.聚合关系：聚合关系是指在一个结构中某一个特定位置上可相互替换的各要素之间的关系。聚合关系又叫做垂直关系或选择关系。Immediate constituent analysisDefinition of IC analysis It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents.word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.直接成分分析法定义 直接成分分析法是指先把句子分析为直接成分词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。Features of IC analysis Advantage:through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.直接成分分析法的特点：优点：通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰的展现出来，如果有歧义也会被揭示出来。 Problems：first，at the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions, any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts, but this is not always possible. Second, construction with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for three diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.问题：首先，开始的时候，有些提倡者坚持二元切分，任何结构体在任何层面都分成两个部分。但实际上并不总是如此。其次，含有不连续成分的结构体会给IC分析法的树形图造成技术困难。更严重的问题是有些结构的歧义不能用IC分析法来揭示，分析。Endocentric and exocentric constructionsConstruction is the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between elements. It can be divided into two types: endocentric construction and exocentric constructions向心结构和离心结构结构是由相互之间有关系的要素组成的句子或比句子小的单位。结构可分为向心结构和离心结构。Endocentric construction:It refers to the construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serves as a head or a center of the whole. So, it is also called headed construction. The endocentric construction can be further divided into the following two types: subordinate endocentric construction and coordinate endocentric construction.向心结构：向心结构是指一个其分布功能可以等于其中一个充当主次或中心词的结构的成分。所以，向心结构又叫做主词结构。根据结构中两个分词之间关系，向心结构又可细分为：从属向心结构和并列向心结构。Subordinate endocentric constructions:Those endocentric constructions where there is only one head, with the head dominant the other constructions being modifiers are called subordinate endocentric constructions从属向心结构：凡是结构中有一个以上支配性主语，其他成分为该主词的修饰成分，这样的向心结构成为从属向心结构。Coordinate endocentric constructions: Those endocentric constructions where there are more than one heads, with equal syntactic status and no one dependent on the other, are called coordinate endocentric constructions.并列向心结构：凡是结构中有一个以上句法地位相等的主词，互不依靠，这样的向心结构称为并列向心结构。Exocentric construction:It refers to a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents, none of which serves as a noticeable head or a centre of the whole.离心结构：离心结构是指一个其分布功能不等于它的任何一个成分，没有明显的主词或中心词结构。Generative approach: The theory of generative approach originated with the American linguist Noam Chomsky.In 1957,he published Syntactic Structions, after that the theory has undergone a number of changes.生成语法：生成学派是由美国语言学家诺姆.乔姆斯基创立的。1957年发表了句法结构，从此以后这理论经历了一系列变化。 Syntactic Category 句法类 Definition : A syntactic category usually refers to a lexical category or phrasal category that performs a particular grammatical function .定义：句法类是指履行某一特定语法功能的一个单词语类或短语语类 Classification: The syntactic category can be divided into two types: lexical category and phrasal category .分类：句法类包括单词语类和短语语类。 4 Lexical category ; It is also called part of speech ,in English ,there are four major lexical categories ,that is, noun ,verb ,adjective and adverb .So ,the major lexical category is almost content category .单词语类：单词语类又叫做词性，英语中有四种主要单词语类:名词、动词、形容词和副词。因此，单词语类多为实义语类。 4 Phrasal category: It includes four kings , I .e. NP, VP, PP and AP. 短语语类：短语语类包括名词短语、动词短语、介词短语和形容词短语。Syntactic Movement and Movement Rules 句法移位和移位规则 Syntactic movement : It refers to the movement of any constituent in a sentence out of its original place to a new position . Well discuss three kinds of movement here : NP-movement , Wh-movement and AUK-movement.句法移位：句法移位是指一个句子的成分从原来的位置移到另一个新位置。这里我们讨论三种移位：NP移位，WH-移位和AUK-移位。 4 NP-movement : It is relative to two constructions, I.e. passive sentence and raising construction. Generally speaking , the passive sentence is produced by the movement of the active sentence; in the raising construction, there are two kinds of raising of: raising verbs and raising adjectives. NP移位：NP移位涉及两种结构：被动句和提升结构。一般认为，被动句是由主动句移位产生的。NP移位不仅发生在被动句，而且发生在提升结构中，主要有两种提升结构：一类是含有提升动词的结构，另一类是含有提升形容词的结构。 4 WH-movement: Ihe movement mostly takes place in wh-question sentences, including direct wh-question sentences, indirect wh-question sentences and relative clauses. Wh-移位：主要发生在wh-问句，包括直接wh-问句和间接wh-问句以及关系问句中。 - Aux-movement: It refers to the movement of such words as be , have , do , may ,can , shall , should, and so on , from the original position to the beginning of the sentence .AUX-移位：是指诸如be, have, do , may, can, shall, should 之类的助动词从原来的位置移动到居首。 Deep structure and Surface Structure 深层结构和表层结构 Deep structure : It refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction , I,e, the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.深层结构：深层结构是指一个结构体的语法属性的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。Surface structure ：It is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction , which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce .表层结构：表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们的实际发送，接受的结构组织是相符合的。Move- rule (move-规则)It is a general movement rule which accounts for the syntactic benavior of any constituent movement.这个规则是指任何成分可以移动到任何位置。6. Functional Approach the Prague school功能学派（布拉格学派） The Prague school thinks that a sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side .布拉格学派认为句子能从语法的角度分析，也能够从功能的角度分析。 Vilem Mathesius ,held that apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view ,there may be a functional analysis in terms of THEME and RHEME 马太休斯 认为句子除了用主语和谓语来进行形式分析外，还可以用另一套术语：主位和述位。Theme: It refers to that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds.主位：主位是指已知的信息或至少在语境中是明确，说话者从它开始谈话。Rheme: It refers to what the speaker states about , or in regard to , the starting point of the utterance.述位：述位是指说话者的陈述有关，或者涉及，话语起点的内容。Another method to analyze a sentence from the functional perspective is Communicative Dynamism , CD for shot , which is proposed by J.Firbas.从功能角度分析句子的另一种方法是J.Firbas 提出的交际动力分析法，简称CD分析法。Communicative Dynamism : It refers to the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication . According to J.Firbas view, the theme is constituted by the elements carrying the lowest degree of CD within the sentence , while the rheme is constituted by the sentence elements carrying the highest degree of CD within the sentence .交际动力：它是指句子成分对交际发展所做的贡献的程度。根据J.Firbas 的观点，主位是由句子内交际动力程度最低的部分构成，而述位是由句子内交际动力程度最高部分构成。7 Systemic- functional Grammar (Hallidays Approach)系统-功能语法学派 This linguistic theory has been developed by the British born Australian linguist M.A.K.Halliday. As the name suggests , it has two characteristics: systemic and functional . What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions of language to its structures .HE argues that there are three general functions of language: ideational , interpersonal and textual 这一理论由出生在英国的澳大利亚语言学家韩礼德发展来的。如名称所示，它由两个特征：系统的和功能的 。韩礼德的创新之处在于她把语言功能跟结构联系起来，他认为有三种普遍的语言功能：概念功能.人际功能和语篇功能。三补充术语Simple sentence : It is a sentence that consists of a simple clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句：是指只含一个简单的子句，只有一个主语和一个谓语的句子。Coordinate sentence ;It is a sentence that consists of two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”,”but”or”并列句：是指含有两个子句,句子之间由类似和 但是 或者 等连接词在一起的句子。Complex sentence : It is a sentence that contains two or more clauses , one of which can be incorporated into the other 复合句：是指含有两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个包含在另一个里面Recursiveness: It is a rule that can reapply to a form that is itself partly or wholly derived by it . For instance , an NP can contain a PP, for example , the fishin the pool,and a PP can again contain an NP and the NP can contain another PP,the fishinthe pool in the garden,and so on .递归性：是指规则可以重新应用到某一部分或全部使用这种规则得到的结构上。例如，根据句法规则，一个名词短语可以包含一个修饰性介词短语【the fishin the pool】,介词短语中又可包含一个名词短语【the fish inthe poolin the garden,名词短语还可以包含一个介词短语，依次类推。Conjoining : It refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another . the sentences made up in this way can be understood as instances of coordination .连接：指的是一个小句与其他小聚并列或连接的过程。通过这种方式组成的句子理解为并列句。Embedding: It refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence(main clause)in syntactic subordination.嵌入：指的是将小句包含到句子里使其在句法上处于从属地位的一种方式。 Argument of poverty stimulus: It means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contact of language data in the process of Their L1 acquisition.刺激贫乏论：即有些语言知识不可能是靠母语习得的过程中所接触到的语言材料获得的。Innateness Hypothesis: This is proposed by Chomsky, by which language is a product of human brain is born with language Faculty or language Acquisition Device which is genetically-based. When a child was born ,his language Faculty is in initial state, with constant exposure to native language, the LF is developed from initial state ti steady state.先天性假说：由乔姆斯基提出，按照这种假说，语言是人脑的产物，人脑=生来就具有一种语言器官或称为语言习得机制，这种语言器官是由遗传基因决定的。儿童出生时，人脑的语言器官处于初始状态，随着儿童不断地接触母语，其语言能力由初始状态发展为稳定状态。Universal Grammar: Human language knowledge consists of two kinds of knowledge: one is genetically endowed and the other is acquired later. The generally endowed language knowledge is identical when they were born: therefore the gifted an universal language knowledge in human brain containing common language rules of all natural languages in the world is termed Universal Grammar.普通语法：人类的语言知识有两部分组成：一部分是与生俱来的语言知识，另一部分是后天获得的。如果有一部分语言知识是天生的，那么所有人出生时所具有的语言知识必然是相同的。这种人类大脑中生而有之的、含有世界上所有自然语言的共同特征的普遍语言知识叫做普遍语法。Parameters: The language knowledge of UG related to a particular language is known as parameters, which manifest language variations and usually have two parameters values realized by various language differences.参数：普遍语法中和